Comparing frailty measures in their ability to predict adverse outcome among older residents of assisted living.

BACKGROUND: Few studies have directly compared the competing approaches to identifying frailty in more vulnerable older populations. We examined the ability of two versions of a frailty index (43 vs. 83 items), the Cardiovascular Health Study (CHS) frailty criteria, and the CHESS scale to accurately predict the occurrence of three outcomes among Assisted Living (AL) residents followed over one year. METHODS: The three frailty measures and the CHESS scale were derived from assessment items completed among 1,066 AL residents (aged 65+) participating in the Alberta Continuing Care Epidemiological Studies (ACCES). Adjusted risks of one-year mortality, hospitalization and long-term care placement were estimated for those categorized as frail or pre-frail compared with non-frail (or at high/intermediate vs. low risk on CHESS). The area under the ROC curve (AUC) was calculated for select models to assess the predictive accuracy of the different frailty measures and CHESS scale in relation to the three outcomes examined. RESULTS: Frail subjects defined by the three approaches and those at high risk for decline on CHESS showed a statistically significant increased risk for death and long-term care placement compared with those categorized as either not frail or at low risk for decline. The risk estimates for hospitalization associated with the frailty measures and CHESS were generally weaker with one of the frailty indices (43 items) showing no significant association. For death and long-term care placement, the addition of frailty (however derived) or CHESS significantly improved on the AUC obtained with a model including only age, sex and co-morbidity, though the magnitude of improvement was sometimes small. The different frailty/risk models did not differ significantly from each other in predicting mortality or hospitalization; however, one of the frailty indices (83 items) showed significantly better performance over the other measures in predicting long-term care placement. CONCLUSIONS: Using different approaches, varying degrees of frailty were detected within the AL population. The various approaches to defining frailty were generally more similar than dissimilar with regard to predictive accuracy with some exceptions. The clinical implications and opportunities of detecting frailty in more vulnerable older adults require further investigation.

Operationalizing frailty among older residents of assisted living facilities.

BACKGROUND: Frailty in later life is viewed as a state of heightened vulnerability to poor outcomes. The utility of frailty as a measure of vulnerability in the assisted living (AL) population remains unexplored. We examined the feasibility and predictive accuracy of two different interpretations of the Cardiovascular Health Study (CHS) frailty criteria in a population-based sample of AL residents. METHODS: CHS frailty criteria were operationalized using two different approaches in 928 AL residents from the Alberta Continuing Care Epidemiological Studies (ACCES). Risks of one-year mortality and hospitalization were estimated for those categorized as frail or pre-frail (compared with non-frail). The prognostic significance of individual criteria was explored, and the area under the ROC curve (AUC) was calculated for select models to assess the utility of frailty in predicting one-year outcomes. RESULTS: Regarding feasibility, complete CHS criteria could not be assessed for 40% of the initial 1,067 residents. Consideration of supplementary items for select criteria reduced this to 12%. Using absolute (CHS-specified) cut-points, 48% of residents were categorized as frail and were at greater risk for death (adjusted risk ratio [RR] 1.75, 95% CI 1.08-2.83) and hospitalization (adjusted RR 1.54, 95% CI 1.20-1.96). Pre-frail residents defined by absolute cut-points (48.6%) showed no increased risk for mortality or hospitalization compared with non-frail residents. Using relative cut-points (derived from AL sample), 19% were defined as frail and 55% as pre-frail and the associated risks for mortality and hospitalization varied by sex. Frail (but not pre-frail) women were more likely to die (RR 1.58 95% CI 1.02-2.44) and be hospitalized (RR 1.53 95% CI 1.25-1.87). Frail and pre-frail men showed an increased mortality risk (RR 3.21 95% CI 1.71-6.00 and RR 2.61 95% CI 1.40-4.85, respectively) while only pre-frail men had an increased risk of hospitalization (RR 1.58 95% CI 1.15-2.17). Although incorporating either frailty measure improved the performance of predictive models, the best AUCs were 0.702 for mortality and 0.633 for hospitalization. CONCLUSIONS: Application of the CHS criteria for frailty was problematic and only marginally improved the prediction of select adverse outcomes in AL residents. Development and validation of alternative approaches for detecting frailty in this population, including consideration of female/male differences, is warranted.

Patient and informal caregivers' knowledge of heart failure: necessary but insufficient for effective self-care.

AIMS: Self-care of heart failure (HF) is a process that is important, complex, and challenging. Little is understood of the contextual factors influencing self-care. We aimed to examine the individual and contextual factors perceived by patients and their informal caregivers' to influence their willingness and capacity to undertake effective HF self-care. METHODS AND RESULTS: This was a qualitative study using semi-structured interviews with 42 patients with HF (NYHA Class II and III, mean age: 76 years, 64% males) and 30 nominated caregivers (63% spouses). All patients experienced severe and intrusive HF symptoms; a large proportion of patients practiced some of the range of recommended self-care activities. However, links between knowledge of HF and self-care were weak and long delays in seeking professional care were frequent. Factors consistently reported to influence self-care were faith in health professionals, beliefs about the local health system, and values linked to work associated with place, history, and culture. CONCLUSION: Knowledge of HF and its management is a necessary though not sufficient determinant of HF self-care. Individual and contextual factors influence willingness and capacity to undertake effective HF self-care.

Video programming for individuals with dementia: assessing cognitive congruence.

The effect of cognitively congruent video programming on attentional engagement, as measured by the average look duration and the proportion of the video viewed, was examined among long-term care facility residents with Alzheimer's disease. Over a 2-week period, 24 residents viewed 4 cognitively congruent videos and 1 control video (ie, a recorded episode of a local news program) at least once. Level of attentional engagement was significantly higher for cognitively congruent video programs compared to the News. Neither history of television viewing nor cognitive status was related to engagement. The results suggest that video programs with less cognitive complexity may be more engaging for individuals with Alzheimer's disease.

Giving voice to informal caregivers of older adults.

This study focused on the experiences of informal caregivers of older adults and explored whether employment, use of home-care services, or other factors influence the health of caregivers and their ability to manage their caregiving and other responsibilities. Focus groups conducted with 26 caregivers and personal interviews with 4 caregivers identified 12 themes under 5 conceptual areas: caregiver health, relationships, independence, employment, and use of home-care services. The findings reveal that caregiving coupled with other responsibilities can have serious health effects. Participants spoke of the tenuous balance of decision-making control between caregiver and care recipient. Many caregivers expressed a desire to be included as part of the formal health-care team. Implications for nursing are discussed.

Indicators of home care use in urban and rural settings.

This study employs a longitudinal design to examine rural-urban differences in home care service use over time, drawing on data from the Manitoba Study of Health and Aging (MSHA). Characteristics of community-dwelling, cognitively intact adults aged 65 years or older not receiving home care services in the province of Manitoba ( n = 855) were collected in 1991/1992. Place of residence was categorized as urban/small-town zone or predominantly rural area . A 5-year follow-up determined subsequent home care use. Urban residents were more likely to receive home care than those in small-town zones or predominantly rural areas. Characteristics associated with use differed according to place of residence, with the exception of baseline physical functioning and changes in physical functioning that consistently emerged as significant. Directions for future research are discussed.

Estimating the incidence of dementia: the impact of adjusting for subject attrition using health care utilization data.

PURPOSE: To estimate incidence rates for dementia and the impact of subject attrition on these rates. METHODS: Crude, age- and gender-specific incidence rates of dementia and Alzheimer's disease were calculated using person-years analysis and Cox proportional hazard models in a population-based cohort study of 1952 adults aged 65+ years in Manitoba, Canada. Rates were standardized to the nondemented population using the direct method. Ratios of incidence rates comparing completers to subjects who had died, refused, or were unavailable for follow up were based on health care utilization data (available for all subject groups) and used to adjust rates for attrition. RESULTS: Decedents had a significantly higher incidence of dementia than did subjects who completed the follow-up assessment. The incidence in subjects who refused or were unavailable at follow up was intermediate between decedents and completers. Adjusted for attrition, the standardized dementia incidence rate for community and institutional subjects was 25.3/1000 person-years, significantly higher than that based on follow-up assessments only (17.8/1000 person-years; 95% confidence interval: 14.3-21.4). CONCLUSIONS: The impact of loss to follow up on incidence rates varies depending on the reason for subject attrition. Incidence studies of dementia should develop strategies to characterize and address subject attrition to avoid underestimating disease incidence.

Quality of life of adults with unhealed and healed diabetic foot ulcers.

BACKGROUND: Diabetic foot ulcers cause major treatment morbidity and cost of care. This study evaluated quality of life in patients with unhealed and healed diabetic foot ulcers. METHODS: This was a cross-sectional study of adult diabetic patients (age 45 years or older) treated in a tertiary care foot clinic who had foot ulcers within the preceding 2 years. Patients with other diabetic complications or conditions that would potentially affect quality of life were excluded. Two patient groups of comparable age, gender distribution, and duration of diabetes were studied: 57 patients with unhealed ulcers (minimum duration, 6 months) and 47 patients with healed ulcers. Telephone interviews were done using the Short Form 12 (SF-12) (both groups) and a Cardiff Wound Impact Scale (CWIS) (unhealed ulcer group). RESULTS: The mean SF-12 Physical Component Summary score was significantly lower for the group with unhealed ulcers (unhealed, 35 +/- 8 points; healed, 39 +/- 10 points; p = 0.04); these scores for both groups were significantly lower than published Short Form 36 (SF-36) scores for general, diabetic, and hypertensive populations. The mean SF-12 Mental Component Summary scores of the groups did not differ significantly from each other or from published population scores. CWIS responses showed that patients with unhealed ulcers were frustrated with healing and had anxiety about the wounds, resulting in marked negative impact on the average Well-being Component Score (35 +/- 6 points). CONCLUSIONS: Individuals with diabetic foot ulcers experience profound compromise of physical quality of life, which is worse in those with unhealed ulcers.

Elevated Hospitalization Risk of Assisted Living Residents With Dementia in Alberta, Canada.

OBJECTIVES: Assisted living (AL) is an increasingly used residential option for older adults with dementia; however, lower staffing rates and service availability raise concerns that such residents may be at increased risk for adverse outcomes. Our objectives were to determine the incidence of hospitalization over 1 year for dementia residents of designated AL (DAL) facilities, compared with long-term care (LTC) facilities, and identify resident- and facility-level predictors of hospitalization among DAL residents. METHODS: Participants were 609 DAL (mean age 85.7 ± 6.6 years) and 691 LTC (86.4 ± 6.9 years) residents with dementia enrolled in the Alberta Continuing Care Epidemiological Studies. Research nurses completed a standardized comprehensive assessment of residents and interviewed family caregivers at baseline (2006-2008) and 1 year later. Standardized administrator interviews provided facility level data. Hospitalization was determined via linkage with the provincial Inpatient Discharge Abstract Database. Multivariable Cox proportional hazards models were used to identify predictors of hospitalization. RESULTS: The cumulative annual incidence of hospitalization was 38.6% (34.5%-42.7%) for DAL and 10.3% (8.0%-12.6%) for LTC residents with dementia. A significantly increased risk for hospitalization was observed for DAL residents aged 90+ years, with poor social relationships, less severe cognitive impairment, greater health instability, fatigue, high medication use (11+ medications), and 2+ hospitalizations in the preceding year. Residents from DAL facilities with a smaller number of spaces, no chain affiliation, and from specific health regions showed a higher risk of hospitalization. CONCLUSIONS: DAL residents with dementia had a hospitalization rate almost 4-fold higher than LTC residents with dementia. Our findings raise questions about the ability of some AL facilities to adequately address the needs of cognitively impaired residents and highlight potential clinical, social, and policy areas for targeted interventions to reduce hospitalization risk.

Continuing and ceasing leisure activities in later life: a longitudinal study.

PURPOSE: This study examined changes in leisure activities of older adults over an 8-year period, and associated sociodemographic and health characteristics. DESIGN AND METHODS: Data were from a longitudinal study conducted in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada; 380 respondents were interviewed in-person in both 1985 and 1993. Changes in ten specific activities and the overall number of activities continued were examined. RESULTS: Theater/movies/spectator sports and travel were the activities least likely to be continued over the 8-year period; watching television and reading were most likely to be continued. Characteristics significantly related to changes in activities were age, gender, education, and self-rated health in 1985 as well as changes in marital status, self-rated health, and functional ability between 1985 and 1993, although no consistent pattern emerged. IMPLICATIONS: Leisure education is discussed as a means of introducing modifications to enhance older adults' participation in desired activities. Directions for future research are highlighted.

High rates of hospital admission among older residents in assisted living facilities: opportunities for intervention and impact on acute care.

BACKGROUND: Little is known about health or service use outcomes for residents of Canadian assisted living facilities. Our objectives were to estimate the incidence of admission to hospital over 1 year for residents of designated (i.e., publicly funded) assisted living (DAL) facilities in Alberta, to compare this rate with the rate among residents of long-term care facilities, and to identify individual and facility predictors of hospital admission for DAL residents. METHODS: Participants were 1066 DAL residents (mean age ± standard deviation 84.9 ± 7.3 years) and 976 longterm care residents (85.4 ± 7.6 years) from the Alberta Continuing Care Epidemiological Studies (ACCES). Research nurses completed a standardized comprehensive assessment for each resident and interviewed family caregivers at baseline (2006 to 2008) and 1 year later. We used standardized interviews with administrators to generate facility- level data. We determined hospital admissions through linkage with the Alberta Inpatient Discharge Abstract Database. We used multivariable Cox proportional hazards models to identify predictors of hospital admission. RESULTS: The cumulative annual incidence of hospital admission was 38.9% (95% confidence interval [CI] 35.9%- 41.9%) for DAL residents and 13.7% (95% CI 11.5%-15.8%) for long-term care residents. The risk of hospital admission was significantly greater for DAL residents with greater health instability, fatigue, medication use (11 or more medications), and 2 or more hospital admissions in the preceding year. The risk of hospital admission was also significantly higher for residents from DAL facilities with a smaller number of spaces, no licensed practical and/ or registered nurses on site (or on site less than 24 hours a day, 7 days a week), no chain affiliation, and from select health regions. INTERPRETATION: The incidence of hospital admission was about 3 times higher among DAL residents than among long-term care residents, and the risk of hospital admission was associated with a number of potentially modifiable factors. These findings raise questions about the complement of services and staffing required within assisted living facilities and the potential impact on acute care of the shift from long-term care to assisted living for the facility-based care of vulnerable older people.

Predictors of Nursing Home Placement from Assisted Living Settings in Canada.

We sought to estimate the incidence of long-term care (LTC) placement and to identify resident- and facility-level predictors of placement among older residents of designated assisted living (AL) facilities in Alberta, Canada. Included were 1,086 AL residents from 59 facilities. Research nurses completed interRAI-AL resident assessments and interviewed family caregivers and administrators. Predictors of placement were identified with multivariable Cox proportional hazards models. The cumulative incidence of LTC admission was 18.3 per cent by 12 months. Significantly increased risk for placement was evident for older residents and those with poor social relationships, little involvement in activities, cognitive and/or functional impairment, health instability, recent falls and hospitalizations/emergency department visits, and severe bladder incontinence. Residents from larger facilities, with an LPN and/or RN on-site 24/7 and with an affiliated primary care physician, showed lower risk of placement. Our findings highlight clinical and policy areas where targeted interventions may delay LTC admissions.

Facilitators and barriers to safe emergency department transitions for community dwelling older people with dementia and their caregivers: a social ecological study.

BACKGROUND: Internationally, older adults visit the ED at a rate higher than other age groups. Little attention has been given to ED care for older people with dementia, although concern for such care is growing with the increasing number of individuals worldwide affected by this significant disabling problem. It is critical to understand ED transitional processes and consequences because the complexity of dementia care poses multiple challenges to optimizing safety, effectiveness and quality of care during admission, assessment, and treatment in this setting. METHOD: Using an interpretive, descriptive exploratory design with three iterative, interrelated phases, we conducted interviews, created a photographic narrative journal (PNJ), and finally held photo elicitation focus groups to identify factors that facilitate or impede safe transitional care for community dwelling older adults with dementia in two Canadian emergency departments, and to identify practice solutions for nurses. We purposively sampled to recruit ten older adult-family caregiver dyads, ten ED RNs, and four Nurse Practitioners. Data were analyzed using constant comparative analysis. RESULTS: Four interconnected reinforcing consequences emerged from our analysis: being under-triaged; waiting and worrying about what was wrong; time pressure with lack of attention to basic needs; and, relationships and interactions leading to feeling ignored, forgotten and unimportant. Together these consequences stem from a triage system that does not recognize atypical presentation of disease and illness. This potentiated a cascade of vulnerability in older people with dementia and their caregivers. Nurses experienced time pressure challenges that impeded their ability to be responsive to basic care needs. CONCLUSIONS: In an aging population where dementia is becoming more prevalent, the unit of care in the ED must include both the older person and their family caregiver. Negative reinforcing consequences can be interrupted when nurses communicate and engage more regularly with the older adult-caregiver dyad to build trust. System changes are also needed to support the ability of nurses to carry out best practices.

Does a rural residence predict the development of depressive symptoms in older adults?

OBJECTIVE: We sought to determine whether adults aged 65 years or older living in rural areas who are without depressive symptoms have a lower risk of developing depressive symptoms over 5 years than their urban counterparts, and to determine the factors that predict the development of depressive symptoms in older adults in rural and urban areas. METHODS: We conducted a secondary analysis of an existing data set, the Manitoba Study of Health and Aging (MSHA.) We studied a population-based random sample of 807 people without depressive symptoms or cognitive impairment who were residing in Manitoba communities in 1991/92 and 5 years later in 1996/97. We defined "rural" as a census subdivision with a population of less than 20,000, and "urban" as a population of 20,000 or greater. The MSHA investigators measured depressive symptoms using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression scale, using the standard cut-point of 16 or more. Participants reported their age, sex, education, self-rated health, and functional status at the time of their first interview. RESULTS: Of adults aged 65 years or older living in urban areas, 13.3% developed depressive symptoms, versus 8.9% of those living in rural regions (p = 0.047). In multivariate analyses, a rural residence was not associated with the development of depressive symptoms. In rural areas, factors predicting depressive symptoms were female sex and poor self-rated health at the time of the first interview. CONCLUSION: A rural residence is only weakly protective for the development of depressive symptoms over 5 years, and this association was not seen after we accounted for potential confounding variables. As well, these results underscore the strong association between poor health and depressive symptoms.

Depressive symptoms among older adults in urban and rural areas.

OBJECTIVES: To determine if there are differences in depressive symptoms between residents of urban areas, small town zones, and predominantly rural regions and to determine factors associated with depressive symptoms among these groups of residents. METHOD: The study was set in the Canadian province of Manitoba amongst a community-dwelling population of older adults who were cognitively intact. The design of the study was a cross-sectional survey and measures included age, gender, education, living arrangements, number of persons providing companionship, perceived adequacy of income, functional impairment, self-rated health and the Center for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression (CES-D) scale. Urban/rural residence was measured by grouping Census sub-divisions according to 1991 Census population: urban (>19,999); small town (2500 to 19,999); or predominantly rural (<2500). RESULTS: In the total sample (n = 1382), 11.5% exhibited depressive symptoms: 11.6% in urban areas (n = 844); 14.0% in small town zones (n = 250); 9.0% in predominantly rural regions (n = 288) (p > 0.05, chi-square test). No rural-urban differences were seen in multivariate models. In predominantly rural regions, living alone, perceiving one's income as inadequate, and having functional impairment were associated with depressive symptoms. The only significant factor in small town zones was poorer self-rated health whereas in urban areas, poorer self-rated health, functional impairment, and fewer persons providing companionship were significantly related to depressive symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: We did not observe rural-urban differences. However, the factors associated with depressive symptoms varied among older adults living in predominantly rural regions, in small towns, and in urban areas.

Cognitively impaired older adults: risk profiles for institutionalization.

BACKGROUND: This study focused on the identification of risk profiles for institutionalization among older adults diagnosed with cognitive impairment-not dementia or dementia in 1991/92 and subsequent institutionalization in the following 5-year period. METHODS: Data were from a sample of 123 individuals aged 65+ and their unpaid caregivers in Manitoba, Canada. Cluster analysis was conducted using baseline characteristics of age, cognition, disruptive behaviors, ADLs/IADLs, use of formal in-home services, and level of caregiver burden. RESULTS: Three distinct groups emerged (high risk [n = 12], medium risk [n = 40], and low risk [n = 71]). The high-risk group had the poorest cognitive scores, were the most likely to exhibit disruptive behaviors, were the most likely to need assistance with ADLs and IADLs, and had the highest level of burden among their caregivers. Follow-up of the groups validated the risk profiles; 75% of the high-risk group were institutionalized within the next 5 years, compared to 45% of the medium-risk group and 21% of the low-risk group. DISCUSSION: The risk profiles highlight the diversity among individuals with cognitive impairment and the opportunity for differential targeting of services for the distinct needs of each group.