RESUMEN
Homology search is a central step of DNA double-strand break (DSB) repair by homologous recombination (HR). How it operates in cells remains elusive. We developed a Hi-C-based methodology to map single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) contacts genome-wide in S. cerevisiae, which revealed two main homology search phases. Initial search conducted by short Rad51-ssDNA nucleoprotein filaments (NPFs) is confined in cis by cohesin-mediated chromatin loop folding. Progressive growth of stiff NPFs enables exploration of distant genomic sites. Long-range resection drives this transition from local to genome-wide search by increasing the probability of assembling extensive NPFs. DSB end-tethering promotes coordinated search by opposite NPFs. Finally, an autonomous genetic element on chromosome III engages the NPF, which stimulates homology search in its vicinity. This work reveals the mechanism of the progressive expansion of homology search that is orchestrated by chromatin organizers, long-range resection, end-tethering, and specialized genetic elements and that exploits the stiff NPF structure conferred by Rad51 oligomerization.
Asunto(s)
Roturas del ADN de Doble Cadena , ADN de Hongos , ADN de Cadena Simple , Recombinasa Rad51 , Reparación del ADN por Recombinación , Proteínas de Saccharomyces cerevisiae , Saccharomyces cerevisiae , Saccharomyces cerevisiae/genética , Saccharomyces cerevisiae/metabolismo , Proteínas de Saccharomyces cerevisiae/genética , Proteínas de Saccharomyces cerevisiae/metabolismo , ADN de Cadena Simple/metabolismo , ADN de Cadena Simple/genética , Recombinasa Rad51/metabolismo , Recombinasa Rad51/genética , ADN de Hongos/genética , ADN de Hongos/metabolismo , Proteínas Cromosómicas no Histona/metabolismo , Proteínas Cromosómicas no Histona/genética , Cromatina/metabolismo , Cromatina/genética , Proteínas de Ciclo Celular/metabolismo , Proteínas de Ciclo Celular/genética , CohesinasRESUMEN
Eukaryotic genomes are folded into DNA loops mediated by structural maintenance of chromosomes (SMC) complexes such as cohesin, condensin, and Smc5/6. This organization regulates different DNA-related processes along the cell cycle, such as transcription, recombination, segregation, and DNA repair. During the G2 stage, SMC-mediated DNA loops coexist with cohesin complexes involved in sister chromatid cohesion (SCC). However, the articulation between the establishment of SCC and the formation of SMC-mediated DNA loops along the chromatin remains unknown. Here, we show that SCC is indeed a barrier to cohesin-mediated DNA loop expansion along G2/M Saccharomyces cerevisiae chromosomes.
Asunto(s)
Proteínas Cromosómicas no Histona , Proteínas de Saccharomyces cerevisiae , Proteínas Cromosómicas no Histona/genética , Proteínas Cromosómicas no Histona/metabolismo , Proteínas de Ciclo Celular/metabolismo , Cromátides/genética , Cromátides/metabolismo , Cohesinas , Saccharomyces cerevisiae/genética , Saccharomyces cerevisiae/metabolismo , ADN/genética , ADN/metabolismo , Proteínas de Saccharomyces cerevisiae/genética , Proteínas de Saccharomyces cerevisiae/metabolismoRESUMEN
Viruses compete with each other for limited cellular resources, and some deliver defence mechanisms that protect the host from competing genetic parasites1. The phage antirestriction induced system (PARIS) is a defence system, often encoded in viral genomes, that is composed of a 55 kDa ABC ATPase (AriA) and a 35 kDa TOPRIM nuclease (AriB)2. However, the mechanism by which AriA and AriB function in phage defence is unknown. Here we show that AriA and AriB assemble into a 425 kDa supramolecular immune complex. We use cryo-electron microscopy to determine the structure of this complex, thereby explaining how six molecules of AriA assemble into a propeller-shaped scaffold that coordinates three subunits of AriB. ATP-dependent detection of foreign proteins triggers the release of AriB, which assembles into a homodimeric nuclease that blocks infection by cleaving host lysine transfer RNA. Phage T5 subverts PARIS immunity through expression of a lysine transfer RNA variant that is not cleaved by PARIS, thereby restoring viral infection. Collectively, these data explain how AriA functions as an ATP-dependent sensor that detects viral proteins and activates the AriB toxin. PARIS is one of an emerging set of immune systems that form macromolecular complexes for the recognition of foreign proteins, rather than foreign nucleic acids3.
RESUMEN
Hi-C has become a routine method for probing the 3D organization of genomes. However, when applied to prokaryotes and archaea, the current protocols are expensive and limited in their resolution. We develop a cost-effective Hi-C protocol to explore chromosome conformations of these two kingdoms at the gene or operon level. We first validate it on E. coli and V. cholera, generating sub-kilobase-resolution contact maps, and then apply it to the euryarchaeota H. volcanii, Hbt. salinarum, and T. kodakaraensis. With a resolution of up to 1 kb, we explore the diversity of chromosome folding in this phylum. In contrast to crenarchaeota, these euryarchaeota lack (active/inactive) compartment-like structures. Instead, their genomes are composed of self-interacting domains and chromatin loops. In H. volcanii, these structures are regulated by transcription and the archaeal structural maintenance of chromosomes (SMC) protein, further supporting the ubiquitous role of these processes in shaping the higher-order organization of genomes.
Asunto(s)
Compartimento Celular , Cromatina/genética , Cromosomas de Archaea , ADN de Archaea/genética , Euryarchaeota/genética , Genoma Arqueal , Transcripción Genética , Ensamble y Desensamble de Cromatina , Regulación de la Expresión Génica Arqueal , Halobacterium salinarum/genética , Haloferax volcanii/genética , Motivos de Nucleótidos , Filogenia , Thermococcus/genéticaRESUMEN
Cohesin, a member of the SMC complex family, holds sister chromatids together but also shapes chromosomes by promoting the formation of long-range intra-chromatid loops, a process proposed to be mediated by DNA loop extrusion. Here we describe the roles of three cohesin partners, Pds5, Wpl1, and Eco1, in loop formation along either unreplicated or mitotic Saccharomyces cerevisiae chromosomes. Pds5 limits the size of DNA loops via two different pathways: the canonical Wpl1-mediated releasing activity and an Eco1-dependent mechanism. In the absence of Pds5, the main barrier to DNA loop expansion appears to be the centromere. Our data also show that Eco1 acetyl-transferase inhibits the translocase activity that powers loop formation and contributes to the positioning of loops through a mechanism that is distinguishable from its role in cohesion establishment. This study reveals that the mechanisms regulating cohesin-dependent chromatin loops are conserved among eukaryotes while promoting different functions.
Asunto(s)
Acetiltransferasas/metabolismo , Proteínas de Ciclo Celular/metabolismo , Cromátides/metabolismo , Proteínas Cromosómicas no Histona/metabolismo , Cromosomas Fúngicos/química , Proteínas Nucleares/metabolismo , Proteínas de Saccharomyces cerevisiae/metabolismo , Saccharomyces cerevisiae/metabolismo , Acetiltransferasas/genética , Proteínas de Ciclo Celular/genética , Cromátides/genética , Proteínas Cromosómicas no Histona/genética , Segregación Cromosómica , Cromosomas Fúngicos/genética , Cromosomas Fúngicos/metabolismo , Mitosis , Proteínas Nucleares/genética , Saccharomyces cerevisiae/genética , Proteínas de Saccharomyces cerevisiae/genética , CohesinasRESUMEN
In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, dicentric chromosomes stemming from telomere fusions preferentially break at the fusion. This process restores a normal karyotype and protects chromosomes from the detrimental consequences of accidental fusions. Here, we address the molecular basis of this rescue pathway. We observe that tandem arrays tightly bound by the telomere factor Rap1 or a heterologous high-affinity DNA binding factor are sufficient to establish breakage hotspots, mimicking telomere fusions within dicentrics. We also show that condensins generate forces sufficient to rapidly refold dicentrics prior to breakage by cytokinesis and are essential to the preferential breakage at telomere fusions. Thus, the rescue of fused telomeres results from a condensin- and Rap1-driven chromosome folding that favors fusion entrapment where abscission takes place. Because a close spacing between the DNA-bound Rap1 molecules is essential to this process, Rap1 may act by stalling condensins.
Asunto(s)
Adenosina Trifosfatasas/genética , Cromosomas Fúngicos/metabolismo , ADN de Hongos/genética , Proteínas de Unión al ADN/genética , Complejos Multiproteicos/genética , Proteínas de Saccharomyces cerevisiae/genética , Saccharomyces cerevisiae/genética , Proteínas de Unión a Telómeros/genética , Telómero/metabolismo , Factores de Transcripción/genética , Adenosina Trifosfatasas/metabolismo , Puntos de Rotura del Cromosoma , Cromosomas Fúngicos/ultraestructura , Citocinesis/genética , ADN de Hongos/metabolismo , Proteínas de Unión al ADN/metabolismo , Expresión Génica , Cariotipo , Modelos Genéticos , Complejos Multiproteicos/metabolismo , Saccharomyces cerevisiae/metabolismo , Saccharomyces cerevisiae/ultraestructura , Proteínas de Saccharomyces cerevisiae/metabolismo , Complejo Shelterina , Telómero/ultraestructura , Proteínas de Unión a Telómeros/metabolismo , Factores de Transcripción/metabolismoRESUMEN
Meiotic recombination shows broad variations across species and along chromosomes and is often suppressed at and around genomic regions determining sexual compatibility such as mating type loci in fungi. Here, we show that the absence of Spo11-DSBs and meiotic recombination on Lakl0C-left, the chromosome arm containing the sex locus of the Lachancea kluyveri budding yeast, results from the absence of recruitment of the two chromosome axis proteins Red1 and Hop1, essential for proper Spo11-DSBs formation. Furthermore, cytological observation of spread pachytene meiotic chromosomes reveals that Lakl0C-left does not undergo synapsis. However, we show that the behavior of Lakl0C-left is independent of its particularly early replication timing and is not accompanied by any peculiar chromosome structure as detectable by Hi-C in this yet poorly studied yeast. Finally, we observed an accumulation of heterozygous mutations on Lakl0C-left and a sexual dimorphism of the haploid meiotic offspring, supporting a direct effect of this absence of meiotic recombination on L. kluyveri genome evolution and fitness. Because suppression of meiotic recombination on sex chromosomes is widely observed across eukaryotes, the mechanism for recombination suppression described here may apply to other species, with the potential to impact sex chromosome evolution.
Asunto(s)
Proteínas de Saccharomyces cerevisiae , Saccharomycetales , Cromosomas/metabolismo , Saccharomyces cerevisiae/metabolismo , Saccharomycetales/genética , Saccharomycetales/metabolismo , Recombinación Homóloga/genética , Meiosis/genética , Proteínas de Saccharomyces cerevisiae/genética , Proteínas de Saccharomyces cerevisiae/metabolismoRESUMEN
The unicellular amoeba Acanthamoeba castellanii is ubiquitous in aquatic environments, where it preys on bacteria. The organism also hosts bacterial endosymbionts, some of which are parasitic, including human pathogens such as Chlamydia and Legionella spp. Here we report complete, high-quality genome sequences for two extensively studied A. castellanii strains, Neff and C3. Combining long- and short-read data with Hi-C, we generated near chromosome-level assemblies for both strains with 90% of the genome contained in 29 scaffolds for the Neff strain and 31 for the C3 strain. Comparative genomics revealed strain-specific functional enrichment, most notably genes related to signal transduction in the C3 strain and to viral replication in Neff. Furthermore, we characterized the spatial organization of the A. castellanii genome and showed that it is reorganized during infection by Legionella pneumophila Infection-dependent chromatin loops were found to be enriched in genes for signal transduction and phosphorylation processes. In genomic regions where chromatin organization changed during Legionella infection, we found functional enrichment for genes associated with metabolism, organelle assembly, and cytoskeleton organization. Given Legionella infection is known to alter its host's cell cycle, to exploit the host's organelles, and to modulate the host's metabolism in its favor, these changes in chromatin organization may partly be related to mechanisms of host control during Legionella infection.
RESUMEN
Duplication and segregation of chromosomes involves dynamic reorganization of their internal structure by conserved architectural proteins, including the structural maintenance of chromosomes (SMC) complexes cohesin and condensin. Despite active investigation of the roles of these factors, a genome-wide view of dynamic chromosome architecture at both small and large scale during cell division is still missing. Here, we report the first comprehensive 4D analysis of the higher-order organization of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae genome throughout the cell cycle and investigate the roles of SMC complexes in controlling structural transitions. During replication, cohesion establishment promotes numerous long-range intra-chromosomal contacts and correlates with the individualization of chromosomes, which culminates at metaphase. In anaphase, mitotic chromosomes are abruptly reorganized depending on mechanical forces exerted by the mitotic spindle. Formation of a condensin-dependent loop bridging the centromere cluster with the rDNA loci suggests that condensin-mediated forces may also directly facilitate segregation. This work therefore comprehensively recapitulates cell cycle-dependent chromosome dynamics in a unicellular eukaryote, but also unveils new features of chromosome structural reorganization during highly conserved stages of cell division.
Asunto(s)
Adenosina Trifosfatasas/metabolismo , Proteínas de Ciclo Celular/metabolismo , Ciclo Celular , Proteínas Cromosómicas no Histona/metabolismo , Cromosomas Fúngicos/metabolismo , Proteínas de Unión al ADN/metabolismo , Complejos Multiproteicos/metabolismo , Saccharomyces cerevisiae/fisiología , Saccharomyces cerevisiae/metabolismo , Análisis Espacio-Temporal , CohesinasRESUMEN
MOTIVATION: Hi-C contact maps reflect the relative contact frequencies between pairs of genomic loci, quantified through deep sequencing. Differential analyses of these maps enable downstream biological interpretations. However, the multi-fractal nature of the chromatin polymer inside the cellular envelope results in contact frequency values spanning several orders of magnitude: contacts between loci pairs separated by large genomic distances are much sparser than closer pairs. The same is true for poorly covered regions, such as repeated sequences. Both distant and poorly covered regions translate into low signal-to-noise ratios. There is no clear consensus to address this limitation. RESULTS: We present Serpentine, a fast, flexible procedure operating on raw data, which considers the contacts in each region of a contact map. Binning is performed only when necessary on noisy regions, preserving informative ones. This results in high-quality, low-noise contact maps that can be conveniently visualized for rigorous comparative analyses. AVAILABILITY AND IMPLEMENTATION: Serpentine is available on the PyPI repository and https://github.com/koszullab/serpentine; documentation and tutorials are provided at https://serpentine.readthedocs.io/en/latest/. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.
Asunto(s)
Genoma , Programas Informáticos , Cromatina , GenómicaRESUMEN
In chromosome conformation capture experiments (Hi-C), the accuracy with which contacts are detected varies due to the uneven distribution of restriction sites along genomes. In addition, repeated sequences or homologous regions remain indistinguishable because of the ambiguities they introduce during the alignment of the sequencing reads. We addressed both limitations by designing and engineering 144 kb of a yeast chromosome with regularly spaced restriction sites (Syn-HiC design). In the Syn-HiC region, Hi-C signal-to-noise ratio is enhanced and can be used to measure the shape of an unbiased distribution of contact frequencies, allowing to propose a robust definition of a Hi-C experiment resolution. The redesigned region is also distinguishable from its native homologous counterpart in an otherwise isogenic diploid strain. As a proof of principle, we tracked homologous chromosomes during meiotic prophase in synchronized and pachytene-arrested cells and captured important features of their spatial reorganization, such as chromatin restructuration into arrays of Rec8-delimited loops, centromere declustering, individualization, and pairing. Overall, we illustrate the promises held by redesigning genomic regions to explore complex biological questions.
Asunto(s)
Cromosomas Fúngicos/genética , Schizosaccharomyces/fisiología , Tamaño del Genoma , Meiosis , Schizosaccharomyces/genética , Biología de Sistemas/métodosRESUMEN
Several homology-dependent pathways can repair potentially lethal DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs). The first step common to all homologous recombination reactions is the 5'-3' degradation of DSB ends that yields the 3' single-stranded DNA required for the loading of checkpoint and recombination proteins. In yeast, the Mre11-Rad50-Xrs2 complex (Xrs2 is known as NBN or NBS1 in humans) and Sae2 (known as RBBP8 or CTIP in humans) initiate end resection, whereas long-range resection depends on the exonuclease Exo1, or the helicase-topoisomerase complex Sgs1-Top3-Rmi1 together with the endonuclease Dna2 (refs 1-6). DSBs occur in the context of chromatin, but how the resection machinery navigates through nucleosomal DNA is a process that is not well understood. Here we show that the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae Fun30 protein and its human counterpart SMARCAD1 (ref. 8), two poorly characterized ATP-dependent chromatin remodellers of the Snf2 ATPase family, are directly involved in the DSB response. Fun30 physically associates with DSB ends and directly promotes both Exo1- and Sgs1-dependent end resection through a mechanism involving its ATPase activity. The function of Fun30 in resection facilitates the repair of camptothecin-induced DNA lesions, although it becomes dispensable when Exo1 is ectopically overexpressed. Interestingly, SMARCAD1 is also recruited to DSBs, and the kinetics of recruitment is similar to that of EXO1. The loss of SMARCAD1 impairs end resection and recombinational DNA repair, and renders cells hypersensitive to DNA damage resulting from camptothecin or poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase inhibitor treatments. These findings unveil an evolutionarily conserved role for the Fun30 and SMARCAD1 chromatin remodellers in controlling end resection, homologous recombination and genome stability in the context of chromatin.
Asunto(s)
Ensamble y Desensamble de Cromatina , Roturas del ADN de Doble Cadena , ADN Helicasas/metabolismo , Reparación del ADN , ADN/metabolismo , Proteínas de Saccharomyces cerevisiae/metabolismo , Factores de Transcripción/metabolismo , Camptotecina/farmacología , Línea Celular , Supervivencia Celular , ADN/genética , Roturas del ADN de Doble Cadena/efectos de los fármacos , ADN Helicasas/deficiencia , ADN Helicasas/genética , Reparación del ADN/genética , Exodesoxirribonucleasas/genética , Exodesoxirribonucleasas/metabolismo , Inestabilidad Genómica/genética , Histonas/metabolismo , Recombinación Homóloga/genética , Humanos , Mutación , Nucleosomas/genética , Nucleosomas/metabolismo , Inhibidores de Poli(ADP-Ribosa) Polimerasas , Poli(ADP-Ribosa) Polimerasas/metabolismo , RecQ Helicasas/metabolismo , Saccharomyces cerevisiae/genética , Saccharomyces cerevisiae/metabolismo , Proteínas de Saccharomyces cerevisiae/genética , Factores de Transcripción/deficiencia , Factores de Transcripción/genéticaRESUMEN
The European green woodpecker, Picus viridis, is a widely distributed species found in the Western Palearctic region. Here, we assembled a highly contiguous genome assembly for this species using a combination of short- and long-read sequencing and scaffolded with chromatin conformation capture (Hi-C). The final genome assembly was 1.28â Gb and features a scaffold N50 of 37â Mb and a scaffold L50 of 39.165â Mb. The assembly incorporates 89.4% of the genes identified in birds in OrthoDB. Gene and repetitive content annotation on the assembly detected 15,805 genes and a â¼30.1% occurrence of repetitive elements, respectively. Analysis of synteny demonstrates the fragmented nature of the P. viridis genome when compared to the chicken (Gallus gallus). The assembly and annotations produced in this study will certainly help for further research into the genomics of P. viridis and the comparative evolution of woodpeckers. Five historical and seven contemporary samples have been resequenced and may give insights on the population history of this species.
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Aves , Genoma , Genómica , Anotación de Secuencia Molecular , Animales , Aves/genética , Genómica/métodos , Cromosomas/genética , Sintenía , Mapeo Cromosómico , Secuencias Repetitivas de Ácidos Nucleicos , Pollos/genéticaRESUMEN
Transcription generates local topological and mechanical constraints on the DNA fiber, leading to the generation of supercoiled chromosome domains in bacteria. However, the global impact of transcription on chromosome organization remains elusive, as the scale of genes and operons in bacteria remains well below the resolution of chromosomal contact maps generated using Hi-C (~5-10 kb). Here we combined sub-kb Hi-C contact maps and chromosome engineering to visualize individual transcriptional units. We show that transcriptional units form discrete three-dimensional transcription-induced domains that impose mechanical and topological constraints on their neighboring sequences at larger scales, modifying their localization and dynamics. These results show that transcriptional domains constitute primary building blocks of bacterial chromosome folding and locally impose structural and dynamic constraints.
Asunto(s)
Cromosomas Bacterianos , Cromosomas , Cromosomas Bacterianos/genética , ADNRESUMEN
Viruses compete with each other for limited cellular resources, and some viruses deliver defense mechanisms that protect the host from competing genetic parasites. PARIS is a defense system, often encoded in viral genomes, that is composed of a 53 kDa ABC ATPase (AriA) and a 35 kDa TOPRIM nuclease (AriB). Here we show that AriA and AriB assemble into a 425 kDa supramolecular immune complex. We use cryo-EM to determine the structure of this complex which explains how six molecules of AriA assemble into a propeller-shaped scaffold that coordinates three subunits of AriB. ATP-dependent detection of foreign proteins triggers the release of AriB, which assembles into a homodimeric nuclease that blocks infection by cleaving the host tRNALys. Phage T5 subverts PARIS immunity through expression of a tRNALys variant that prevents PARIS-mediated cleavage, and thereby restores viral infection. Collectively, these data explain how AriA functions as an ATP-dependent sensor that detects viral proteins and activates the AriB toxin. PARIS is one of an emerging set of immune systems that form macromolecular complexes for the recognition of foreign proteins, rather than foreign nucleic acids.
RESUMEN
Anosmia was identified as a hallmark of COVID-19 early in the pandemic, however, with the emergence of variants of concern, the clinical profile induced by SARS-CoV-2 infection has changed, with anosmia being less frequent. Here, we assessed the clinical, olfactory and neuroinflammatory conditions of golden hamsters infected with the original Wuhan SARS-CoV-2 strain, its isogenic ORF7-deletion mutant and three variants: Gamma, Delta, and Omicron/BA.1. We show that infected animals develop a variant-dependent clinical disease including anosmia, and that the ORF7 of SARS-CoV-2 contributes to the induction of olfactory dysfunction. Conversely, all SARS-CoV-2 variants are neuroinvasive, regardless of the clinical presentation they induce. Taken together, this confirms that neuroinvasion and anosmia are independent phenomena upon SARS-CoV-2 infection. Using newly generated nanoluciferase-expressing SARS-CoV-2, we validate the olfactory pathway as a major entry point into the brain in vivo and demonstrate in vitro that SARS-CoV-2 travels retrogradely and anterogradely along axons in microfluidic neuron-epithelial networks.
Asunto(s)
COVID-19 , SARS-CoV-2 , Animales , Cricetinae , COVID-19/virología , SARS-CoV-2/genética , Genoma Viral , Axones/virología , Bulbo Olfatorio/virología , Internalización del Virus , Carga Viral , Variación GenéticaRESUMEN
We designed and synthesized synI, which is â¼21.6% shorter than native chrI, the smallest chromosome in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. SynI was designed for attachment to another synthetic chromosome due to concerns surrounding potential instability and karyotype imbalance and is now attached to synIII, yielding the first synthetic yeast fusion chromosome. Additional fusion chromosomes were constructed to study nuclear function. ChrIII-I and chrIX-III-I fusion chromosomes have twisted structures, which depend on silencing protein Sir3. As a smaller chromosome, chrI also faces special challenges in assuring meiotic crossovers required for efficient homolog disjunction. Centromere deletions into fusion chromosomes revealed opposing effects of core centromeres and pericentromeres in modulating deposition of the crossover-promoting protein Red1. These effects extend over 100 kb and promote disproportionate Red1 enrichment, and thus crossover potential, on small chromosomes like chrI. These findings reveal the power of synthetic genomics to uncover new biology and deconvolute complex biological systems.
RESUMEN
Our knowledge of yeast genomes remains largely dominated by the extensive studies on Saccharomyces cerevisiae and the consequences of its ancestral duplication, leaving the evolution of the entire class of hemiascomycetes only partly explored. We concentrate here on five species of Saccharomycetaceae, a large subdivision of hemiascomycetes, that we call "protoploid" because they diverged from the S. cerevisiae lineage prior to its genome duplication. We determined the complete genome sequences of three of these species: Kluyveromyces (Lachancea) thermotolerans and Saccharomyces (Lachancea) kluyveri (two members of the newly described Lachancea clade), and Zygosaccharomyces rouxii. We included in our comparisons the previously available sequences of Kluyveromyces lactis and Ashbya (Eremothecium) gossypii. Despite their broad evolutionary range and significant individual variations in each lineage, the five protoploid Saccharomycetaceae share a core repertoire of approximately 3300 protein families and a high degree of conserved synteny. Synteny blocks were used to define gene orthology and to infer ancestors. Far from representing minimal genomes without redundancy, the five protoploid yeasts contain numerous copies of paralogous genes, either dispersed or in tandem arrays, that, altogether, constitute a third of each genome. Ancient, conserved paralogs as well as novel, lineage-specific paralogs were identified.
Asunto(s)
Genoma Fúngico , Genómica/métodos , Saccharomycetales/genética , Elementos Transponibles de ADN/genética , Elementos Transponibles de ADN/fisiología , Eremothecium/genética , Duplicación de Gen , Genes Fúngicos/genética , Inteínas/genética , Kluyveromyces/genética , Datos de Secuencia Molecular , Sistemas de Lectura Abierta/genética , Filogenia , ARN no Traducido/genética , Saccharomyces/genética , Empalmosomas/metabolismo , Zygosaccharomyces/genéticaRESUMEN
During the past decade, Chromosome Conformation Capture (3C/Hi-C)-based methods have been used to probe the 3D structure and organization of bacterial genomes, revealing fundamental aspects of chromosome dynamics. However, the current protocols are expensive, inefficient, and limited in their resolution. Here we present a simple, cost-effective Hi-C approach that is readily applicable to a range of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.
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Bacterias Gramnegativas , Bacterias Grampositivas , Antibacterianos , Bacterias/genética , Cromosomas , Bacterias Gramnegativas/genética , Programas InformáticosRESUMEN
Chromosome segregation requires both the separation of sister chromatids and the sustained condensation of chromatids during anaphase. In yeast cells, cohesin is not only required for sister chromatid cohesion but also plays a major role determining the structure of individual chromatids in metaphase. Separase cleavage is thought to remove all cohesin complexes from chromosomes to initiate anaphase. It is thus not clear how the length and organisation of segregating chromatids is maintained during anaphase in the absence of cohesin. Here, we show that degradation of cohesin at the anaphase onset causes aberrant chromatid segregation. Hi-C analysis on segregating chromatids demonstrates that cohesin depletion causes loss of intrachromatid organisation. Surprisingly, tobacco etch virus (TEV)-mediated cleavage of cohesin does not dramatically disrupt chromatid organisation in anaphase, explaining why bulk segregation is achieved. In addition, we identified a small pool of cohesin complexes bound to telophase chromosomes in wild-type cells and show that they play a role in the organisation of centromeric regions. Our data demonstrates that in yeast cells cohesin function is not over in metaphase, but extends to the anaphase period when chromatids are segregating.