Near-source passive sampling for monitoring viral outbreaks within a university residential setting.

Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) has proven to be a powerful tool for the population-level monitoring of pathogens, particularly severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). For assessment, several wastewater sampling regimes and methods of viral concentration have been investigated, mainly targeting SARS-CoV-2. However, the use of passive samplers in near-source environments for a range of viruses in wastewater is still under-investigated. To address this, near-source passive samples were taken at four locations targeting student hall of residence. These were chosen as an exemplar due to their high population density and perceived risk of disease transmission. Viruses investigated were SARS-CoV-2 and its variants of concern (VOCs), influenza viruses, and enteroviruses. Sampling was conducted either in the morning, where passive samplers were in place overnight (17 h) and during the day, with exposure of 7 h. We demonstrated the usefulness of near-source passive sampling for the detection of VOCs using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) and next-generation sequencing (NGS). Furthermore, several outbreaks of influenza A and sporadic outbreaks of enteroviruses (some associated with enterovirus D68 and coxsackieviruses) were identified among the resident student population, providing evidence of the usefulness of near-source, in-sewer sampling for monitoring the health of high population density communities.

Cryptic Patterns of Speciation in Cryptic Primates: Microendemic Mouse Lemurs and the Multispecies Coalescent.

Mouse lemurs (Microcebus) are a radiation of morphologically cryptic primates distributed throughout Madagascar for which the number of recognized species has exploded in the past two decades. This taxonomic revision has prompted understandable concern that there has been substantial oversplitting in the mouse lemur clade. Here, we investigate mouse lemur diversity in a region in northeastern Madagascar with high levels of microendemism and predicted habitat loss. We analyzed RADseq data with multispecies coalescent (MSC) species delimitation methods for two pairs of sister lineages that include three named species and an undescribed lineage previously identified to have divergent mtDNA. Marked differences in effective population sizes, levels of gene flow, patterns of isolation-by-distance, and species delimitation results were found among the two pairs of lineages. Whereas all tests support the recognition of the presently undescribed lineage as a separate species, the species-level distinction of two previously described species, M. mittermeieri and M. lehilahytsara is not supported-a result that is particularly striking when using the genealogical discordance index (gdi). Nonsister lineages occur sympatrically in two of the localities sampled for this study, despite an estimated divergence time of less than 1 Ma. This suggests rapid evolution of reproductive isolation in the focal lineages and in the mouse lemur clade generally. The divergence time estimates reported here are based on the MSC calibrated with pedigree-based mutation rates and are considerably more recent than previously published fossil-calibrated relaxed-clock estimates. We discuss the possible explanations for this discrepancy, noting that there are theoretical justifications for preferring the MSC estimates in this case. [Cryptic species; effective population size; microendemism; multispecies coalescent; speciation; species delimitation.].

Conservation genomic analysis reveals ancient introgression and declining levels of genetic diversity in Madagascar's hibernating dwarf lemurs.

Madagascar's biodiversity is notoriously threatened by deforestation and climate change. Many of these organisms are rare, cryptic, and severely threatened, making population-level sampling unrealistic. Such is the case with Madagascar's dwarf lemurs (genus Cheirogaleus), the only obligate hibernating primate. We here apply comparative genomic approaches to generate the first genome-wide estimates of genetic diversity within dwarf lemurs. We generate a reference genome for the fat-tailed dwarf lemur, Cheirogaleus medius, and use this resource to facilitate analyses of high-coverage (~30×) genome sequences for wild-caught individuals representing species: C. sp. cf. medius, C. major, C. crossleyi, and C. sibreei. This study represents the largest contribution to date of novel genomic resources for Madagascar's lemurs. We find concordant phylogenetic relationships among the four lineages of Cheirogaleus across most of the genome, and yet detect a number of discordant genomic regions consistent with ancient admixture. We hypothesized that these regions could have resulted from adaptive introgression related to hibernation, indeed finding that genes associated with hibernation are present, though most significantly, that gene ontology categories relating to transcription are over-represented. We estimate levels of heterozygosity and find particularly low levels in an individual sampled from an isolated population of C. medius that we refer to as C. sp. cf. medius. Results are consistent with a recent decline in effective population size, which is evident across species. Our study highlights the power of comparative genomic analysis for identifying species and populations of conservation concern, as well as for illuminating possible mechanisms of adaptive phenotypic evolution.

Neutral Theory Is the Foundation of Conservation Genetics.

Kimura's neutral theory of molecular evolution has been essential to virtually every advance in evolutionary genetics, and by extension, is foundational to the field of conservation genetics. Conservation genetics utilizes the key concepts of neutral theory to identify species and populations at risk of losing evolutionary potential by detecting patterns of inbreeding depression and low effective population size. In turn, this information can inform the management of organisms and their habitat providing hope for the long-term preservation of both. We expand upon Avise's "inventorial" and "functional" categories of conservation genetics by proposing a third category that is linked to the coalescent and that we refer to as "process-driven." It is here that connections between Kimura's theory and conservation genetics are strongest. Process-driven conservation genetics can be especially applied to large genomic data sets to identify patterns of historical risk, such as population bottlenecks, and accordingly, yield informed intuitions for future outcomes. By examining inventorial, functional, and process-driven conservation genetics in sequence, we assess the progression from theory, to data collection and analysis, and ultimately, to the production of hypotheses that can inform conservation policies.

The genetic structure of Nautilus pompilius populations surrounding Australia and the Philippines.

Understanding the distribution of genetic diversity in exploited species is fundamental to successful conservation. Genetic structure and the degree of gene flow among populations must be assessed to design appropriate strategies to prevent the loss of distinct populations. The cephalopod Nautilus pompilius is fished unsustainably in the Philippines for the ornamental shell trade and has limited legislative protection, despite the species' recent dramatic decline in the region. Here, we use 14 microsatellite markers to evaluate the population structure of N. pompilius around Australia and the Philippines. Despite their relative geographical proximity, Great Barrier Reef individuals are genetically isolated from Osprey Reef and Shark Reef in the Coral Sea (FST  = 0.312, 0.229, respectively). Conversely, despite the larger geographical distances between the Philippines and west Australian reefs, samples display a small degree of genetic structure (FST  = 0.015). Demographic scenarios modelled using approximate Bayesian computation analysis indicate that this limited divergence is not due to contemporary gene flow between the Philippines and west Australia. Instead, present-day genetic similarity can be explained by very limited genetic drift that has occurred due to large average effective population sizes that persisted at both locations following their separation. The lack of connectivity among populations suggests that immigrants from west Australia would not facilitate natural recolonization if Philippine populations were fished to extinction. These data help to rectify the paucity of information on the species' biology currently inhibiting their conservation classification. Understanding population structure can allow us to facilitate sustainable harvesting, thereby preserving the diversity of genetically distinct stocks.

Simultaneous detection and characterization of common respiratory pathogens in wastewater through genomic sequencing.

Genomic surveillance of SARS-CoV-2 has given insight into the evolution and epidemiology of the virus and its variant lineages during the COVID-19 pandemic. Expanding this approach to include a range of respiratory pathogens can better inform public health preparedness for potential outbreaks and epidemics. Here, we simultaneously sequenced 38 pathogens including influenza viruses, coronaviruses and bocaviruses, to examine the abundance and seasonality of respiratory pathogens in urban wastewater. We deployed a targeted bait capture method and short-read sequencing (Illumina Respiratory Virus Oligos Panel; RVOP) on composite wastewater samples from 8 wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and one associated hospital site. By combining seasonal sampling with whole genome sequencing, we were able to concurrently detect and characterise a range of common respiratory pathogens, including SARS-CoV-2, adenovirus and parainfluenza virus. We demonstrated that 38 respiratory pathogens can be detected at low abundances year-round, that hospital pathogen diversity is higher in winter vs. summer sampling events, and that significantly more viruses are detected in raw influent compared to treated effluent samples. Finally, we compared detection sensitivity of RT-qPCR vs. next generation sequencing for SARS-CoV-2, enteroviruses, influenza A/B, and respiratory syncytial viruses. We conclude that both should be used in combination; RT-qPCR allowed accurate quantification, whilst genomic sequencing detected pathogens at lower abundance. We demonstrate the valuable role of wastewater genomic surveillance and its contribution to the field of wastewater-based epidemiology, gaining rapid understanding of the seasonal presence and persistence for common respiratory pathogens. By simultaneously monitoring seasonal trends and early warning signs of many viruses circulating in communities, public health agencies can implement targeted prevention and rapid response plans.

Examining the stability of viral RNA and DNA in wastewater: Effects of storage time, temperature, and freeze-thaw cycles.

Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) has been demonstrably successful as a relatively unbiased tool for monitoring levels of SARS-CoV-2 virus circulating in communities during the COVID-19 pandemic. Accumulated biobanks of wastewater samples allow retrospective exploration of spatial and temporal trends for public health indicators such as chemicals, viruses, antimicrobial resistance genes, and the possible emergence of novel human or zoonotic pathogens. We investigated virus resilience to time, temperature, and freeze-thaw cycles, plus the optimal storage conditions to maintain the stability of genetic material (RNA/DNA) of viral +ssRNA (Envelope - E, Nucleocapsid - N and Spike protein - S genes of SARS-CoV-2), dsRNA (Phi6 phage) and circular dsDNA (crAssphage) in wastewater. Samples consisted of (i) processed and extracted wastewater samples, (ii) processed and extracted distilled water samples, and (iii) raw, unprocessed wastewater samples. Samples were stored at -80 °C, -20 °C, 4 °C, or 20 °C for 10 days, going through up to 10 freeze-thaw cycles (once per day). Sample stability was measured using reverse transcription quantitative PCR, quantitative PCR, automated electrophoresis, and short-read whole genome sequencing. Exploring different areas of the SARS-CoV-2 genome demonstrated that the S gene in processed and extracted samples showed greater sensitivity to freeze-thaw cycles than the E or N genes. Investigating surrogate and normalisation viruses showed that Phi6 remains a stable comparison for SARS-CoV-2 in a laboratory setting and crAssphage was relatively resilient to temperature variation. Recovery of SARS-CoV-2 in raw unprocessed samples was significantly greater when stored at 4 °C, which was supported by the sequencing data for all viruses - both time and freeze-thaw cycles negatively impacted sequencing metrics. Historical extracts stored at -80 °C that were re-quantified 12, 14 and 16 months after original quantification showed no major changes. This study highlights the importance of the fast processing and extraction of wastewater samples, following which viruses are relatively robust to storage at a range of temperatures.

Comparative assessment of Nanotrap and polyethylene glycol-based virus concentration in wastewater samples.

Wastewater-based epidemiology is now widely used in many countries for the routine monitoring of SARS-CoV-2 and other viruses at a community level. However, efficient sample processing technologies are still under investigation. In this study, we compared the performance of the novel Nanotrap® Microbiome Particles (NMP) concentration method to the commonly used polyethylene glycol (PEG) precipitation method for concentrating viruses from wastewater and their subsequent quantification and sequencing. For this, we first spiked wastewater with SARS-CoV-2, influenza and measles viruses and norovirus and found that the NMP method recovered 0.4%-21% of them depending on virus type, providing consistent and reproducible results. Using the NMP and PEG methods, we monitored SARS-CoV-2, influenza A and B viruses, RSV, enteroviruses and norovirus GI and GII and crAssphage in wastewater using quantitative PCR (qPCR)-based methods and next-generation sequencing. Good viral recoveries were observed for highly abundant viruses using both methods; however, PEG precipitation was more successful in the recovery of low-abundance viruses present in wastewater. Furthermore, samples processed with PEG precipitation were more successfully sequenced for SARS-CoV-2 than those processed with the NMP method. Virus recoveries were enhanced by high sample volumes when PEG precipitation was applied. Overall, our results suggest that the NMP concentration method is a rapid and easy virus concentration method for viral targets that are abundant in wastewater, whereas PEG precipitation may be more suited to the recovery and analysis of low-abundance viruses and for next generation sequencing.

Twenty-four hour diurnal variation in retinal oxygen saturation.

Retinal oxygen saturation is influenced by systemic and local vasculature, intraocular pressure (IOP), and individual cellular function. In numerous retinal pathologies, early changes take place at the level of the microvasculature, thereby affecting retinal oxygenation. The purpose of this study was to investigate diurnal variations in retinal oximetry measures and evaluate the relationship with other ocular and systemic physiological processes. Healthy adults (n = 18, mean age 27 ± 5.5 years) participated. Ocular and systemic measures were collected every four hours over 24 h and included retinal oximetry, IOP, optical coherence tomography (OCT), OCT-angiography (OCTA), biometry, blood pressure, and partial pressure of oxygen. Amplitude and acrophase for retinal oxygen saturation, axial length, retinal and choroidal thickness, OCTA parameters, and mean arterial and ocular perfusion pressure (MAP, MOPP) were determined were determined using cosine fits, and multiple regression analysis was performed to compare metrics. Retinal oxygenation saturation demonstrated a significant diurnal variation with an amplitude of 5.84 ± 3.86% and acrophase of 2.35 h. Other parameters that demonstrated significant diurnal variation included IOP, MOPP, axial length, choroidal thickness, superficial vessel density, heart rate, systolic blood pressure, and MAP. Diurnal variations in retinal oxygen saturation were in-phase with choroidal thickness, IOP, and density of the superficial vascular plexus and out-of-phase with axial length and MOPP. In conclusion, retinal oxygenation saturation undergoes diurnal variations over 24 h. These findings contribute to a better understanding of intrinsic and extrinsic factors influencing oxygenation of the area surrounding the fovea.

Diurnal changes in pathogenic and indicator virus concentrations in wastewater.

Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) has been commonly used for monitoring SARS-CoV-2 outbreaks. As sampling times and methods (i.e. grab vs composite) may vary, diurnal changes of viral concentrations in sewage should be better understood. In this study, we collected untreated wastewater samples hourly for 4 days at two wastewater treatment plants in Wales to establish diurnal patterns in virus concentrations and the physico-chemical properties of the water. Simultaneously, we also trialled three absorbent materials as passive samples as a simple and cost-efficient alternative for the collection of composite samples. Ninety-six percent of all liquid samples (n = 74) and 88% of the passive samplers (n = 59) were positive for SARS-CoV-2, whereas 87% and 97% of the liquid and passive samples were positive for the faecal indicator virus crAssphage, respectively. We found no significant daily variations in the concentration of the target viruses, ammonium and orthophosphate, and the pH and electrical conductivity levels were also stable. Weak positive correlations were found between some physico-chemical properties and viral concentrations. More variation was observed in samples taken from the influent stream as opposed to those taken from the influent tank. Of the absorbent materials trialled as passive samples, we found that tampons provided higher viral recoveries than electronegative filter paper and cotton gauze swabs. For all materials tested, viral recovery was dependent on the virus type. Our results indicate that grab samples may provide representative alternatives to 24-h composite samples if taken from the influent tank, hence reducing the costs of sampling for WBE programmes. Tampons are also viable alternatives for cost-efficient sampling; however, viral recovery should be optimised prior to use.

Comparative Genomic Analysis of the Pheromone Receptor Class 1 Family (V1R) Reveals Extreme Complexity in Mouse Lemurs (Genus, Microcebus) and a Chromosomal Hotspot across Mammals.

Sensory gene families are of special interest for both what they can tell us about molecular evolution and what they imply as mediators of social communication. The vomeronasal type-1 receptors (V1Rs) have often been hypothesized as playing a fundamental role in driving or maintaining species boundaries given their likely function as mediators of intraspecific mate choice, particularly in nocturnal mammals. Here, we employ a comparative genomic approach for revealing patterns of V1R evolution within primates, with a special focus on the small-bodied nocturnal mouse and dwarf lemurs of Madagascar (genera Microcebus and Cheirogaleus, respectively). By doubling the existing genomic resources for strepsirrhine primates (i.e. the lemurs and lorises), we find that the highly speciose and morphologically cryptic mouse lemurs have experienced an elaborate proliferation of V1Rs that we argue is functionally related to their capacity for rapid lineage diversification. Contrary to a previous study that found equivalent degrees of V1R diversity in diurnal and nocturnal lemurs, our study finds a strong correlation between nocturnality and V1R elaboration, with nocturnal lemurs showing elaborate V1R repertoires and diurnal lemurs showing less diverse repertoires. Recognized subfamilies among V1Rs show unique signatures of diversifying positive selection, as might be expected if they have each evolved to respond to specific stimuli. Furthermore, a detailed syntenic comparison of mouse lemurs with mouse (genus Mus) and other mammalian outgroups shows that orthologous mammalian subfamilies, predicted to be of ancient origin, tend to cluster in a densely populated region across syntenic chromosomes that we refer to as a V1R "hotspot."

Leptin and Pro-Inflammatory Stimuli Synergistically Upregulate MMP-1 and MMP-3 Secretion in Human Gingival Fibroblasts.

INTRODUCTION: Gingival fibroblast-mediated extracellular matrix remodelling is implicated in the pathogenesis of periodontitis, yet the stimuli that regulate this response are not fully understood. The immunoregulatory adipokine leptin is detectable in the gingiva, human gingival fibroblasts express functional leptin receptor mRNA and leptin is known to regulate extracellular matrix remodelling responses in cardiac fibroblasts. We therefore hypothesised that leptin would enhance matrix metalloproteinase secretion in human gingival fibroblasts. METHODS AND RESULTS: We used in vitro cell culture to investigate leptin signalling and the effect of leptin on mRNA and protein expression in human gingival fibroblasts. We confirmed human gingival fibroblasts expressed cell surface leptin receptor, found leptin increased matrix metalloproteinase-1, -3, -8 and -14 expression in human gingival fibroblasts compared to unstimulated cells, and observed that leptin stimulation activated MAPK, STAT1/3 and Akt signalling in human gingival fibroblasts. Furthermore, leptin synergised with IL-1 or the TLR2 agonist pam2CSK4 to markedly enhance matrix metalloproteinase-1 and -3 production by human gingival fibroblasts. Signalling pathway inhibition demonstrated ERK was required for leptin-stimulated matrix metalloproteinase-1 expression in human gingival fibroblasts; whilst ERK, JNK, p38 and STAT3 were required for leptin+IL-1- and leptin+pam2CSK4-induced matrix metalloproteinase-1 expression. A genome-wide expression array and gene ontology analysis confirmed genes differentially expressed in leptin+IL-1-stimulated human gingival fibroblasts (compared to unstimulated cells) were enriched for extracellular matrix organisation and disassembly, and revealed that matrix metalloproteinase-8 and -12 were also synergistically upregulated by leptin+IL-1 in human gingival fibroblasts. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that leptin selectively enhances the expression and secretion of certain matrix metalloproteinases in human gingival fibroblasts, and suggest that gingival fibroblasts may have an ECM-degrading phenotype during conditions of hyperleptinaemia (e.g., obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, exogenous leptin therapy).

The extracellular and cytoplasmic proteomes of the non-virulent Bacillus anthracis strain UM23C1-2.

The recently published genome sequence of Bacillus anthracis Ames has facilitated the prediction of proteins associated with the virulence of this bacterium. The aim of this study was to define reference maps for the extracellular and cytoplasmic proteomes of the avirulent B. anthracis strain UM23C1-2 that are useful for physiological studies and the development of improved vaccines. Using 2-DE and subsequent MALDI-TOF-TOF MS, 64 proteins were identified in the extracellular proteome, only 29 of which were predicted to be exported into the culture medium. The latter included chitinases, proteases, nucleotidases, sulfatases, phosphatases and proteins of unknown function. Of the remaining proteins in the culture medium, 18 were predicted to be associated with the cell wall or anchored on the trans side of the cytoplasmic membrane while 17 other proteins lacked identifiable export signals and were predicted to be cytoplasmic proteins. Among the S-layer proteins, Sap and Eag account for 10% of the total extracellular proteome. Many of the proteins are predicted to contribute to the virulence and antigenic signature of B. anthracis. We have also studied the composition of the cytoplasmic proteome, identifying 300 distinct proteins. The most abundant cytoplasmic proteins are primarily those involved in glycolysis, amino acid metabolism, protein translation, protein folding and stress adaptation. The presence of a variety of proteases, peptidases, peptide binding proteins, as well as enzymes required for the metabolism of amino acids, suggests that B. anthracis is adapted to life in a protein-rich environment rather than the soil. We therefore speculate that proteases and peptidases could be useful targets for the development of improved vaccines. In addition, both of these B. anthracis compartment-specific proteomes can be used as reference maps to monitor changes in the production of secreted and cytosolic proteins that occur, for example, during growth in macrophages.

Production of Bacillus anthracis protective antigen is dependent on the extracellular chaperone, PrsA.

Protective antigen (PA) is a component of the Bacillus anthracis lethal and edema toxins and the basis of the current anthrax vaccine. In its heptameric form, PA targets host cells and internalizes the enzymatically active components of the toxins, namely lethal and edema factors. PA and other toxin components are secreted from B. anthracis using the Sec-dependent secretion pathway. This requires them to be translocated across the cytoplasmic membrane in an unfolded state and then to be folded into their native configurations on the trans side of the membrane, prior to their release from the environment of the cell wall. In this study we show that recombinant PA (rPA) requires the extracellular chaperone PrsA for efficient folding when produced in the heterologous host, B. subtilis; increasing the concentration of PrsA leads to an increase in rPA production. To determine the likelihood of PrsA being required for PA production in its native host, we have analyzed the B. anthracis genome sequence for the presence of genes encoding homologues of B. subtilis PrsA. We identified three putative B. anthracis PrsA proteins (PrsAA, PrsAB, and PrsAC) that are able to complement the activity of B. subtilis PrsA with respect to cell viability and rPA secretion, as well as that of AmyQ, a protein previously shown to be PrsA-dependent.