FXR inhibition may protect from SARS-CoV-2 infection by reducing ACE2.

Preventing SARS-CoV-2 infection by modulating viral host receptors, such as angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2)1, could represent a new chemoprophylactic approach for COVID-19 that complements vaccination2,3. However, the mechanisms that control the expression of ACE2 remain unclear. Here we show that the farnesoid X receptor (FXR) is a direct regulator of ACE2 transcription in several tissues affected by COVID-19, including the gastrointestinal and respiratory systems. We then use the over-the-counter compound z-guggulsterone and the off-patent drug ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) to reduce FXR signalling and downregulate ACE2 in human lung, cholangiocyte and intestinal organoids and in the corresponding tissues in mice and hamsters. We show that the UDCA-mediated downregulation of ACE2 reduces susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 infection in vitro, in vivo and in human lungs and livers perfused ex situ. Furthermore, we reveal that UDCA reduces the expression of ACE2 in the nasal epithelium in humans. Finally, we identify a correlation between UDCA treatment and positive clinical outcomes after SARS-CoV-2 infection using retrospective registry data, and confirm these findings in an independent validation cohort of recipients of liver transplants. In conclusion, we show that FXR has a role in controlling ACE2 expression and provide evidence that modulation of this pathway could be beneficial for reducing SARS-CoV-2 infection, paving the way for future clinical trials.

Human SNP links differential outcomes in inflammatory and infectious disease to a FOXO3-regulated pathway.

The clinical course and eventual outcome, or prognosis, of complex diseases varies enormously between affected individuals. This variability critically determines the impact a disease has on a patient's life but is very poorly understood. Here, we exploit existing genome-wide association study data to gain insight into the role of genetics in prognosis. We identify a noncoding polymorphism in FOXO3A (rs12212067: T > G) at which the minor (G) allele, despite not being associated with disease susceptibility, is associated with a milder course of Crohn's disease and rheumatoid arthritis and with increased risk of severe malaria. Minor allele carriage is shown to limit inflammatory responses in monocytes via a FOXO3-driven pathway, which through TGFß1 reduces production of proinflammatory cytokines, including TNFα, and increases production of anti-inflammatory cytokines, including IL-10. Thus, we uncover a shared genetic contribution to prognosis in distinct diseases that operates via a FOXO3-driven pathway modulating inflammatory responses.

Signatures of TOP1 transcription-associated mutagenesis in cancer and germline.

The mutational landscape is shaped by many processes. Genic regions are vulnerable to mutation but are preferentially protected by transcription-coupled repair1. In microorganisms, transcription has been demonstrated to be mutagenic2,3; however, the impact of transcription-associated mutagenesis remains to be established in higher eukaryotes4. Here we show that ID4-a cancer insertion-deletion (indel) mutation signature of unknown aetiology5 characterized by short (2 to 5 base pair) deletions -is due to a transcription-associated mutagenesis process. We demonstrate that defective ribonucleotide excision repair in mammals is associated with the ID4 signature, with mutations occurring at a TNT sequence motif, implicating topoisomerase 1 (TOP1) activity at sites of genome-embedded ribonucleotides as a mechanistic basis. Such TOP1-mediated deletions occur somatically in cancer, and the ID-TOP1 signature is also found in physiological settings, contributing to genic de novo indel mutations in the germline. Thus, although topoisomerases protect against genome instability by relieving topological stress6, their activity may also be an important source of mutations in the human genome.

Malaria protection due to sickle haemoglobin depends on parasite genotype.

Host genetic factors can confer resistance against malaria1, raising the question of whether this has led to evolutionary adaptation of parasite populations. Here we searched for association between candidate host and parasite genetic variants in 3,346 Gambian and Kenyan children with severe malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum. We identified a strong association between sickle haemoglobin (HbS) in the host and three regions of the parasite genome, which is not explained by population structure or other covariates, and which is replicated in additional samples. The HbS-associated alleles include nonsynonymous variants in the gene for the acyl-CoA synthetase family member2-4 PfACS8 on chromosome 2, in a second region of chromosome 2, and in a region containing structural variation on chromosome 11. The alleles are in strong linkage disequilibrium and have frequencies that covary with the frequency of HbS across populations, in particular being much more common in Africa than other parts of the world. The estimated protective effect of HbS against severe malaria, as determined by comparison of cases with population controls, varies greatly according to the parasite genotype at these three loci. These findings open up a new avenue of enquiry into the biological and epidemiological significance of the HbS-associated polymorphisms in the parasite genome and the evolutionary forces that have led to their high frequency and strong linkage disequilibrium in African P. falciparum populations.

The ribosome-associated chaperone Zuo1 controls translation upon TORC1 inhibition.

Protein requirements of eukaryotic cells are ensured by proteostasis, which is mediated by tight control of TORC1 activity. Upon TORC1 inhibition, protein degradation is increased and protein synthesis is reduced through inhibition of translation initiation to maintain cell viability. Here, we show that the ribosome-associated complex (RAC)/Ssb chaperone system, composed of the HSP70 chaperone Ssb and its HSP40 co-chaperone Zuo1, is required to maintain proteostasis and cell viability under TORC1 inhibition in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. In the absence of Zuo1, translation does not decrease in response to the loss of TORC1 activity. A functional interaction between Zuo1 and Ssb is required for proper translational control and proteostasis maintenance upon TORC1 inhibition. Furthermore, we have shown that the rapid degradation of eIF4G following TORC1 inhibition is mediated by autophagy and is prevented in zuo1Δ cells, contributing to decreased survival in these conditions. We found that autophagy is defective in zuo1Δ cells, which impedes eIF4G degradation upon TORC1 inhibition. Our findings identify an essential role for RAC/Ssb in regulating translation in response to changes in TORC1 signalling.

Distinct TORC1 signalling branches regulate Adc17 proteasome assembly chaperone expression.

When stressed, cells need to adapt their proteome to maintain protein homeostasis. This requires increased proteasome assembly. Increased proteasome assembly is dependent on increased production of proteasome assembly chaperones. In S. cerevisiae, inhibition of the growth-promoting kinase complex TORC1 causes increased proteasome assembly chaperone translation, including that of Adc17. This is dependent upon activation of the MAPKinase Mpk1 and relocalisation of assembly chaperone mRNA to patches of dense actin. We show here that TORC1 inhibition alters cell wall properties to induce these changes by activating the Cell Wall Integrity pathway through the Wsc1, Wsc3, and Wsc4 sensor proteins. We demonstrate that in isolation these signals are insufficient to drive protein expression. We identify that the TORC1-activated S6Kinase Sch9 must be inhibited as well. This work expands our knowledge on the signalling pathways which regulate proteasome assembly chaperone production.

Red blood cell tension protects against severe malaria in the Dantu blood group.

Malaria has had a major effect on the human genome, with many protective polymorphisms-such as the sickle-cell trait-having been selected to high frequencies in malaria-endemic regions1,2. The blood group variant Dantu provides 74% protection against all forms of severe malaria in homozygous individuals3-5, a similar degree of protection to that afforded by the sickle-cell trait and considerably greater than that offered by the best malaria vaccine. Until now, however, the protective mechanism has been unknown. Here we demonstrate the effect of Dantu on the ability of the merozoite form of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum to invade red blood cells (RBCs). We find that Dantu is associated with extensive changes to the repertoire of proteins found on the RBC surface, but, unexpectedly, inhibition of invasion does not correlate with specific RBC-parasite receptor-ligand interactions. By following invasion using video microscopy, we find a strong link between RBC tension and merozoite invasion, and identify a tension threshold above which invasion rarely occurs, even in non-Dantu RBCs. Dantu RBCs have higher average tension than non-Dantu RBCs, meaning that a greater proportion resist invasion. These findings provide both an explanation for the protective effect of Dantu, and fresh insight into why the efficiency of P. falciparum invasion might vary across the heterogenous populations of RBCs found both within and between individuals.

Changes in locus wide repression underlie the evolution of Drosophila abdominal pigmentation.

Changes in gene regulation represent an important path to generate developmental differences affecting anatomical traits. Interspecific divergence in gene expression often results from changes in transcription-stimulating enhancer elements. While gene repression is crucial for precise spatiotemporal expression patterns, the relative contribution of repressive transcriptional silencers to regulatory evolution remains to be addressed. Here, we show that the Drosophila pigmentation gene ebony has mainly evolved through changes in the spatial domains of silencers patterning its abdominal expression. By precisely editing the endogenous ebony locus of D. melanogaster, we demonstrate the requirement of two redundant abdominal enhancers and three silencers that repress the redundant enhancers in a patterned manner. We observe a role for changes in these silencers in every case of ebony evolution observed to date. Our findings suggest that negative regulation by silencers likely has an under-appreciated role in gene regulatory evolution.

A novel role for trithorax in the gene regulatory network for a rapidly evolving fruit fly pigmentation trait.

Animal traits develop through the expression and action of numerous regulatory and realizator genes that comprise a gene regulatory network (GRN). For each GRN, its underlying patterns of gene expression are controlled by cis-regulatory elements (CREs) that bind activating and repressing transcription factors. These interactions drive cell-type and developmental stage-specific transcriptional activation or repression. Most GRNs remain incompletely mapped, and a major barrier to this daunting task is CRE identification. Here, we used an in silico method to identify predicted CREs (pCREs) that comprise the GRN which governs sex-specific pigmentation of Drosophila melanogaster. Through in vivo assays, we demonstrate that many pCREs activate expression in the correct cell-type and developmental stage. We employed genome editing to demonstrate that two CREs control the pupal abdomen expression of trithorax, whose function is required for the dimorphic phenotype. Surprisingly, trithorax had no detectable effect on this GRN's key trans-regulators, but shapes the sex-specific expression of two realizator genes. Comparison of sequences orthologous to these CREs supports an evolutionary scenario where these trithorax CREs predated the origin of the dimorphic trait. Collectively, this study demonstrates how in silico approaches can shed novel insights on the GRN basis for a trait's development and evolution.

Non-O ABO blood group genotypes differ in their associations with Plasmodium falciparum rosetting and severe malaria.

Blood group O is associated with protection against severe malaria and reduced size and stability of P. falciparum-host red blood cell (RBC) rosettes compared to non-O blood groups. Whether the non-O blood groups encoded by the specific ABO genotypes AO, BO, AA, BB and AB differ in their associations with severe malaria and rosetting is unknown. The A and B antigens are host RBC receptors for rosetting, hence we hypothesized that the higher levels of A and/or B antigen on RBCs from AA, BB and AB genotypes compared to AO/BO genotypes could lead to larger rosettes, increased microvascular obstruction and higher risk of malaria pathology. We used a case-control study of Kenyan children and in vitro adhesion assays to test the hypothesis that "double dose" non-O genotypes (AA, BB, AB) are associated with increased risk of severe malaria and larger rosettes than "single dose" heterozygotes (AO, BO). In the case-control study, compared to OO, the double dose genotypes consistently had higher odds ratios (OR) for severe malaria than single dose genotypes, with AB (OR 1.93) and AO (OR 1.27) showing most marked difference (p = 0.02, Wald test). In vitro experiments with blood group A-preferring P. falciparum parasites showed that significantly larger rosettes were formed with AA and AB host RBCs compared to OO, whereas AO and BO genotypes rosettes were indistinguishable from OO. Overall, the data show that ABO genotype influences P. falciparum rosetting and support the hypothesis that double dose non-O genotypes confer a greater risk of severe malaria than AO/BO heterozygosity.

Hydroxyurea treatment is associated with lower malaria incidence in children with sickle cell anemia in sub-Saharan Africa.

Realizing Effectiveness Across Continents with Hydroxyurea (REACH, NCT01966731) provides hydroxyurea at maximum tolerated dose (MTD) for children with sickle cell anemia (SCA) in sub-Saharan Africa. Beyond reducing SCA-related clinical events, documented treatment benefits include ∼50% reduction in malaria incidence. To identify associations and propose mechanisms by which hydroxyurea could be associated with lower malaria rates, infections were recorded across all clinical sites (Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, and Uganda). Hazard ratios (HR) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for baseline demographics, and time-varying laboratory and clinical parameters were estimated in a modified Cox gap-time model for repeated events. Over 3387 patient-years of hydroxyurea treatment, 717 clinical malaria episodes occurred in 336 of 606 study participants; over half were confirmed by blood smear and/or rapid diagnostic testing with 97.8% Plasmodium falciparum. In univariate analysis limited to 4 confirmed infections per child, malaria risk was significantly associated with absolute neutrophil count (ANC), splenomegaly, hemoglobin, and achieving MTD; age, malaria season, MTD dose, fetal hemoglobin, α-thalassemia, and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency had no effect. In multivariable regression of confirmed infections, ANC was significant (HR, 1.37 per doubled value; 95% CI, 1.10-1.70; P = .0052), and ANC values <3.0 × 109/L were associated with lower malaria incidence. Compared with nonpalpable spleen, 1- to 4-cm splenomegaly also was associated with higher malaria risk (HR, 2.01; 95% CI, 1.41-2.85; P = .0001). Hydroxyurea at MTD is associated with lower malaria incidence in SCA through incompletely defined mechanisms, but treatment-associated mild myelosuppression with ANC <3.0 × 109/L is salutary. Splenomegaly is an unexplained risk factor for malaria infections among children with SCA in Africa.

Relation between the Dantu blood group variant and bacteraemia in Kenyan children: a population-based case control study.

BACKGROUND: The Dantu blood group variant protects against P. falciparum infections but its wider consequences have not been previously explored. Here, we investigate the impact of Dantu on susceptibility to bacteraemia. METHODS: We conducted a case-control study in children presenting with community-acquired bacteraemia to Kilifi County Hospital in Kenya between 1998 and 2010. We used logistic regression to test for associations between the Dantu marker SNP rs186873296 A>G and both all-cause and pathogen-specific bacteraemia under an additive model. We used date of admission as a proxy measure of malaria transmission intensity, given known differences in malaria prevalence over the course of the study. RESULTS: Dantu was associated with protection from all-cause bacteraemia (OR=0.81, p=0.014), the association being greatest in homozygotes (OR=0.30, p=0.013). This protection was shared across the major bacterial pathogens but, notably, was only significant during the era of high malaria-transmission pre-2003 (OR=0.79, p=0.023). CONCLUSIONS: Consistent with previous studies showing the indirect impact on bacteraemia risk of other malaria-associated red cell variants, our study also shows that Dantu is protective against bacteraemia via its effect on malaria risk. Dantu does not appear to be under balancing selection through an increased risk of bacterial infections.

Cell-type-specific metabolism in plants.

Every plant organ contains tens of different cell types, each with a specialized function. These functions are intrinsically associated with specific metabolic flux distributions that permit the synthesis of the ATP, reducing equivalents and biosynthetic precursors demanded by the cell. Investigating such cell-type-specific metabolism is complicated by the mosaic of different cells within each tissue combined with the relative scarcity of certain types. However, techniques for the isolation of specific cells, their analysis in situ by microscopy, or modeling of their function in silico have permitted insight into cell-type-specific metabolism. In this review we present some of the methods used in the analysis of cell-type-specific metabolism before describing what we know about metabolism in several cell types that have been studied in depth; (i) leaf source and sink cells; (ii) glandular trichomes that are capable of rapid synthesis of specialized metabolites; (iii) guard cells that must accumulate large quantities of the osmolytes needed for stomatal opening; (iv) cells of seeds involved in storage of reserves; and (v) the mesophyll and bundle sheath cells of C4 plants that participate in a CO2 concentrating cycle. Metabolism is discussed in terms of its principal features, connection to cell function and what factors affect the flux distribution. Demand for precursors and energy, availability of substrates and suppression of deleterious processes are identified as key factors in shaping cell-type-specific metabolism.

Real-world persistence of multiple sclerosis disease-modifying therapies.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Treatment persistence is the continuation of therapy over time. It reflects a combination of treatment efficacy and tolerability. We aimed to describe real-world rates of persistence on disease-modifying therapies (DMTs) for people with multiple sclerosis (pwMS) and reasons for DMT discontinuation. METHODS: Treatment data on 4366 consecutive people with relapse-onset multiple sclerosis (MS) were pooled from 13 UK specialist centres during 2021. Inclusion criteria were exposure to at least one MS DMT and a complete history of DMT prescribing. PwMS in blinded clinical trials were excluded. Data collected included sex, age at MS onset, age at DMT initiation, DMT treatment dates, and reasons for stopping or switching DMT. For pwMS who had received immune reconstituting therapies (cladribine/alemtuzumab), discontinuation date was defined as starting an alternative DMT. Kaplan-Meier survival analyses were used to express DMT persistence. RESULTS: In 6997 treatment events (1.6 per person with MS), median time spent on any single maintenance DMT was 4.3 years (95% confidence interval = 4.1-4.5 years). The commonest overall reasons for DMT discontinuation were adverse events (35.0%) and lack of efficacy (30.3%). After 10 years, 20% of people treated with alemtuzumab had received another subsequent DMT, compared to 82% of people treated with interferon or glatiramer acetate. CONCLUSIONS: Immune reconstituting DMTs may have the highest potential to offer a single treatment for relapsing MS. Comparative data on DMT persistence and reasons for discontinuation are valuable to inform treatment decisions and in personalizing treatment in MS.

Reducing transfusion utilization for children with sickle cell anemia in sub-Saharan Africa with hydroxyurea: Analysis from the phase I/II REACH trial.

Children with sickle cell anemia (SCA) in Africa frequently require transfusions for SCA complications. Despite limited blood supplies, strategies to reduce their transfusion needs have not been widely evaluated or implemented. We analyzed transfusion utilization in children with SCA before and during hydroxyurea treatment. REACH (Realizing Effectiveness Across Continents with Hydroxyurea, NCT01966731) is a longitudinal Phase I/II trial of hydroxyurea in children with SCA from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, and Uganda. After enrollment, children had a two-month pre-treatment screening period followed by 6 months of fixed-dose hydroxyurea (15-20 mg/kg/day), 18 months of dose escalation, and then stable dosing at maximum tolerated dose (MTD). Characteristics associated with transfusions were analyzed with univariate and multivariable models. Transfusion incidence rate ratios (IRR) across treatment periods were calculated. Among 635 enrolled children with 4124 person-years of observation, 258 participants (40.4%) received 545 transfusions. The transfusion rate per 100 person-years was 43.2 before hydroxyurea, 21.7 on fixed-dose, 14.5 during dose escalation, and 10.8 on MTD. During MTD, transfusion incidence was reduced by 75% compared to pre-treatment (IRR 0.25, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.18-0.35, p < .0001), and by 50% compared to fixed dose (IRR 0.50, 95% CI 0.39-0.63, p < .0001). Hydroxyurea at MTD decreases transfusion utilization in African children with SCA. If widely implemented, universal testing and hydroxyurea treatment at MTD could potentially prevent 21% of all pediatric transfusions administered in sub-Saharan Africa. Increasing hydroxyurea access for SCA should decrease the transfusion burden and increase the overall blood supply.

Unravelling the complexity of ventilator-associated pneumonia: a systematic methodological literature review of diagnostic criteria and definitions used in clinical research.

BACKGROUND: Ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) is a prevalent and grave hospital-acquired infection that affects mechanically ventilated patients. Diverse diagnostic criteria can significantly affect VAP research by complicating the identification and management of the condition, which may also impact clinical management. OBJECTIVES: We conducted this review to assess the diagnostic criteria and the definitions of the term "ventilator-associated" used in randomised controlled trials (RCTs) of VAP management. SEARCH METHODS: Based on the protocol (PROSPERO 2019 CRD42019147411), we conducted a systematic search on MEDLINE/PubMed and Cochrane CENTRAL for RCTs, published or registered between 2010 and 2024. SELECTION CRITERIA: We included completed and ongoing RCTs that assessed pharmacological or non-pharmacological interventions in adults with VAP. DATA COLLECTION AND SYNTHESIS: Data were collected using a tested extraction sheet, as endorsed by the Cochrane Collaboration. After cross-checking, data were summarised in a narrative and tabular form. RESULTS: In total, 7,173 records were identified through the literature search. Following the exclusion of records that did not meet the eligibility criteria, 119 studies were included. Diagnostic criteria were provided in 51.2% of studies, and the term "ventilator-associated" was defined in 52.1% of studies. The most frequently included diagnostic criteria were pulmonary infiltrates (96.7%), fever (86.9%), hypothermia (49.1%), sputum (70.5%), and hypoxia (32.8%). The different criteria were used in 38 combinations across studies. The term "ventilator-associated" was defined in nine different ways. CONCLUSIONS: When provided, diagnostic criteria and definitions of VAP in RCTs display notable variability. Continuous efforts to harmonise VAP diagnostic criteria in future clinical trials are crucial to improve quality of care, enable accurate epidemiological assessments, and guide effective antimicrobial stewardship.

A Genuinely Hybrid, Multiscale 3D Cancer Invasion and Metastasis Modelling Framework.

We introduce in this paper substantial enhancements to a previously proposed hybrid multiscale cancer invasion modelling framework to better reflect the biological reality and dynamics of cancer. These model updates contribute to a more accurate representation of cancer dynamics, they provide deeper insights and enhance our predictive capabilities. Key updates include the integration of porous medium-like diffusion for the evolution of Epithelial-like Cancer Cells and other essential cellular constituents of the system, more realistic modelling of Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition and Mesenchymal-Epithelial Transition models with the inclusion of Transforming Growth Factor beta within the tumour microenvironment, and the introduction of Compound Poisson Process in the Stochastic Differential Equations that describe the migration behaviour of the Mesenchymal-like Cancer Cells. Another innovative feature of the model is its extension into a multi-organ metastatic framework. This framework connects various organs through a circulatory network, enabling the study of how cancer cells spread to secondary sites.

Uptake of intra-muscular vitamin K administration after birth: A national cohort study.

AIM: A long-acting monoclonal antibody against RSV (nirsevimab), given as an injection shortly after birth, is currently being rolled out globally. Carer acceptance of intra-muscular (IM) vitamin K, another injection given shortly after birth, could serve to indicate the acceptability of nirsevimab. METHODS: We analysed a national dataset of postnatal health visitor visits in Scotland; individual-level data on gestation were not available. The primary outcome measure was the modality of administration of vitamin K; potential explanatory variables were maternal age, infant ethnicity, English as a first language, and measures of socio-economic deprivation. We examined associations between IM vitamin K administration or oral/no vitamin K and each explanatory variable. RESULTS: From 2019 to 2021, questionnaires were available for 142 857 infants; data was missing for 2.7%. IM Vitamin K uptake was high: 95.5% of carers consented, with 1.1% requesting oral vitamin K and 0.9% refusing vitamin K altogether. Infant ethnicity, use of English as a first language, socio-economic status and maternal age were not associated with reduced uptake of IM vitamin K. CONCLUSION: If IM Vitamin K administration is a valid proxy measure for nirsevimab acceptance, we did not identify groups that might require increased engagement prior to nirsevimab roll-out.

Increase in invasive Streptococcus pyogenes M1 infections with close evolutionary genetic relationship, Iceland and Scotland, 2022 to 2023.

Group A Streptococcus isolates of the recently described M1UK clade have emerged to cause human infections in several European countries and elsewhere. Full-genome sequence analysis of M1 isolates discovered a close genomic relationship between some isolates from Scotland and the majority of isolates from Iceland causing serious infections in 2022 and 2023. Phylogenetic analysis strongly suggests that an isolate from or related to Scotland was the precursor to an M1UK variant responsible for almost all recent M1 infections in Iceland.

The clinical impact of serious respiratory disease in children under the age of two years during the 2021-2022 bronchiolitis season in England, Scotland and Ireland.

BACKGROUND: Interventions introduced to reduce the spread of SARS-CoV-2 led to a widespread reduction in childhood infections. However, from spring 2021 onwards the United Kingdom and Ireland experienced an unusual out-of-season epidemic of respiratory disease. METHODS: We conducted a prospective observational study (BronchStart), enrolling children 0-23 months of age presenting with bronchiolitis, lower respiratory tract infection or first episode of wheeze to 59 Emergency Departments across England, Scotland and Ireland from May 2021 to April 2022. We combined testing data with national admissions datasets to infer the impact of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) disease. RESULTS: The BronchStart study collected data on 17,899 presentations for 17,164 children. Risk factors for admission and escalation of care included prematurity and congenital heart disease, but most admissions were for previously healthy term-born children. Of those aged 0-11 months who were admitted and tested for RSV, 1,907/3,912 (48.7%) tested positive. We estimate that every year in England and Scotland 28,561 (95% confidence interval 27,637-29,486) infants are admitted with RSV infection. CONCLUSIONS: RSV infection was the main cause of hospitalisations in this cohort, but 51.3% of admissions in infants were not associated with the virus. The majority of admissions were in previously healthy term-born infants.