Learned switch readiness via concurrent activation of task sets: Evidence from task specificity and memory load.

Cognitive flexibility increases when switch demands increase. In task switching experiments, repeated pairing of flexibility-demanding situations with specific contexts leads subjects to become more prepared to adapt to changing task demands in those contexts. One form of such upregulated cognitive flexibility has been demonstrated with a list-wide switch probability (LWSP) effect, where switch costs are smaller in lists with frequent switches than in lists with rare switches. According to a recent proposal, the LWSP effect is supported by a concurrent activation mechanism whereby both task rules are kept available simultaneously in working memory. We conducted four experiments to test two key features in this concurrent activation account of LWSP effects. First, we asked whether the LWSP effects are limited to only the trained tasks, and second, we asked whether concurrent working memory load would reduce the LWSP effects. In Experiment 1, we replicated and extended previous findings that the LWSP manipulation modulates both performance (switch costs) and voluntary switch rates, indicating that context-driven increases in flexibility are generalizable so long as the task-sets remain the same. Results of Experiments 2 and 3 showed that novel tasks do not benefit from the concurrent activation of the two other tasks, suggesting that the LWSP effect is task specific. Experiment 4 showed that holding additional information in working memory reduces the LWSP effect. While these findings support the hypothesis of concurrent activation underlying the increased flexibility in the LWSP effect, caveats remain; additional research is needed to further test this account.

Task foreknowledge swallows item-specific but not list-wide control learning effects.

Recent context-control learning studies have shown that switch costs are reduced in a particular context predicting a high probability of switching as compared to another context predicting a low probability of switching. These context-specific switch probability effects suggest that control of task sets, through experience, can become associated with a particular context cue and be retrieved subsequently to modulate task-switching efficiency. However, advanced task foreknowledge, mediated by top-down retrieval of a specific task set, also modulates switch costs, as shown in the task-switching literature. Here, we examined how the retrieval of task sets interacts with the retrieval of task control. In Experiments 1 and 2, we provided the task foreknowledge midway through the experiment and examined how it might alter the item-specific switch probability (ISSP) effect and the list-wide switch probability effect (LWSP). Both ISSP and LWSP effects were replicated with no task foreknowledge, demonstrating modulations of switch costs due to context-control learning. These modulations, however, were swallowed once task foreknowledge became available, likely due to the certainty of task foreknowledge overpowering learned probabilistic information. Experiment 3 provided task foreknowledge throughout and compared how it affects the list- versus the item-based control learning. In this case, we detected the LWSP but not the ISSP effect. Experiment 3's findings suggest that, with task foreknowledge, list-based context-control learning does modulate switch costs-likely because the switch probability associations are retrieved proactively. Together, these data suggest that task-switching performance benefits from multiple paths to retrieve information in memory, best if done proactively. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Nurses' Psychological Trauma and Cognitive Control in the COVID-19 Pandemic.

Introduction: During the COVID-19 pandemic, nurses have faced various nurse-specific traumas in their workplaces, but there is limited understanding of the resulting outcomes and factors that contribute to them. Objective: To address this gap, the study employed the middle-range theory of nurses' psychological trauma (NPT) to examine these relationships among frontline nurses working in critical care areas. Methods: In a quantitative cross-sectional study, the study compared nurses identified as probable cases of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) with those identified as not probable cases. The study investigated the nurse-specific traumas they experienced, their individual personality traits, and the buffers they possessed. The study also sought to identify specific types of nurse-specific traumas that could be associated with negative outcomes, such as alcohol and drug use. Results: It was found that PTSD-probable nurses reported higher levels of trauma from disasters and system/medically induced trauma compared to not-probable nurses. They also experienced more nonwork-related humankind traumas and displayed lower resilience. Furthermore, PTSD-probable nurses identified with trait urgency and trait avoidance motivation. Additionally, trauma from disasters was associated with alcohol use. Conclusion: The study highlights the elevated levels of trauma, lower resilience, and specific psychological traits associated with PTSD-probable nurses, emphasizing the need for targeted interventions and support to mitigate the negative outcomes experienced by frontline nurses.

Well under control: Control demand changes are sufficient for metacontrol.

Metacontrol arises from the efficient retrieval of cognitive control by environmental cues that are predictive of the upcoming control demands. Previous studies have demonstrated that proactive and reactive metacontrol can be indexed by a list-wide switch probability (LWSP) and an item-specific switch probability (ISSP) effect, respectively. However, what triggers metacontrol in the first place has not been clearly articulated. While a "mere-experience" hypothesis attributes metacontrol to changes in control demands, an "affective-signaling" hypothesis suggests that high control demands are aversive and aversiveness drives metacontrol. In two experiments, we adjudicated between these hypotheses by considering the modes of metacontrol (proactive vs. reactive) and temporal dynamics of background valence (sustained vs. transient and positive vs. negative). We induced metacontrol (proactive or reactive) in a task-switching paradigm and created background valence by using positive and negative images as stimuli. With valence being an irrelevant aspect of the task, the design allows us to test whether (task-irrelevant) background valence would modulate metacontrol. While we were able to replicate the LWSP effect in Experiment 1 and the ISSP effect in Experiment 2, we did not find valence modulating either effect, regardless of the background valence being a sustained (Experiment 1) or a transient one (Experiment 2). These findings together suggest that negative valence (i.e., aversiveness) does not necessarily benefit metacontrol, and control demand variations are sufficient to induce metacontrol.