Molecular mechanism of prestin electromotive signal amplification.

Hearing involves two fundamental processes: mechano-electrical transduction and signal amplification. Despite decades of studies, the molecular bases for both remain elusive. Here, we show how prestin, the electromotive molecule of outer hair cells (OHCs) that senses both voltage and membrane tension, mediates signal amplification by coupling conformational changes to alterations in membrane surface area. Cryoelectron microscopy (cryo-EM) structures of human prestin bound with chloride or salicylate at a common "anion site" adopt contracted or expanded states, respectively. Prestin is ensconced within a perimeter of well-ordered lipids, through which it induces dramatic deformation in the membrane and couples protein conformational changes to the bulk membrane. Together with computational studies, we illustrate how the anion site is allosterically coupled to changes in the transmembrane domain cross-sectional area and the surrounding membrane. These studies provide insight into OHC electromotility by providing a structure-based mechanism of the membrane motor prestin.

Glycine Release Is Potentiated by cAMP via EPAC2 and Ca2+ Stores in a Retinal Interneuron.

Neuromodulation via the intracellular second messenger cAMP is ubiquitous at presynaptic nerve terminals. This modulation of synaptic transmission allows exocytosis to adapt to stimulus levels and reliably encode information. The AII amacrine cell (AII-AC) is a central hub for signal processing in the mammalian retina. The main apical dendrite of the AII-AC is connected to several lobular appendages that release glycine onto OFF cone bipolar cells and ganglion cells. However, the influence of cAMP on glycine release is not well understood. Using membrane capacitance measurements from mouse AII-ACs to directly measure exocytosis, we observe that intracellular dialysis of 1 mm cAMP enhances exocytosis without affecting the L-type Ca2+ current. Responses to depolarizing pulses of various durations show that the size of the readily releasable pool of vesicles nearly doubles with cAMP, while paired-pulse depression experiments suggest that release probability does not change. Specific agonists and antagonists for exchange protein activated by cAMP 2 (EPAC2) revealed that the cAMP-induced enhancement of exocytosis requires EPAC2 activation. Furthermore, intact Ca2+ stores were also necessary for the cAMP potentiation of exocytosis. Postsynaptic recordings from OFF cone bipolar cells showed that increasing cAMP with forskolin potentiated the frequency of glycinergic spontaneous IPSCs. We propose that cAMP elevations in the AII-AC lead to a robust enhancement of glycine release through an EPAC2 and Ca2+ store signaling pathway. Our results thus contribute to a better understanding of how AII-AC crossover inhibitory circuits adapt to changes in ambient luminance.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The mammalian retina operates over a wide dynamic range of light intensities and contrast levels. To optimize the signal-to-noise ratio of processed visual information, both excitatory and inhibitory synapses within the retina must modulate their gain in synaptic transmission to adapt to different levels of ambient light. Here we show that increases of cAMP concentration within AII amacrine cells produce enhanced exocytosis from these glycinergic interneurons. Therefore, we propose that light-sensitive neuromodulators may change the output of glycine release from AII amacrine cells. This novel mechanism may fine-tune the amount of tonic and phasic synaptic inhibition received by bipolar cell terminals and, consequently, the spiking patterns that ganglion cells send to the upstream visual areas of the brain.

Encoding sound in the cochlea: from receptor potential to afferent discharge.

Ribbon-class synapses in the ear achieve analog to digital transformation of a continuously graded membrane potential to all-or-none spikes. In mammals, several auditory nerve fibres (ANFs) carry information from each inner hair cell (IHC) to the brain in parallel. Heterogeneity of transmission among synapses contributes to the diversity of ANF sound-response properties. In addition to the place code for sound frequency and the rate code for sound level, there is also a temporal code. In series with cochlear amplification and frequency tuning, neural representation of temporal cues over a broad range of sound levels enables auditory comprehension in noisy multi-speaker settings. The IHC membrane time constant introduces a low-pass filter that attenuates fluctuations of the receptor potential above 1-2 kHz. The ANF spike generator adds a high-pass filter via its depolarization-rate threshold that rejects slow changes in the postsynaptic potential and its phasic response property that ensures one spike per depolarization. Synaptic transmission involves several stochastic subcellular processes between IHC depolarization and ANF spike generation, introducing delay and jitter that limits the speed and precision of spike timing. ANFs spike at a preferred phase of periodic sounds in a process called phase-locking that is limited to frequencies below a few kilohertz by both the IHC receptor potential and the jitter in synaptic transmission. During phase-locking to periodic sounds of increasing intensity, faster and facilitated activation of synaptic transmission and spike generation may be offset by presynaptic depletion of synaptic vesicles, resulting in relatively small changes in response phase. Here we review encoding of spike-timing at cochlear ribbon synapses.

How to Build a Fast and Highly Sensitive Sound Detector That Remains Robust to Temperature Shifts.

Frogs must have sharp hearing abilities during the warm summer months to successfully find mating partners. This study aims to understand how frog hair cell ribbon-type synapses preserve both sensitivity and temporal precision during temperature changes. Under room (∼24°C) and high (∼32°C) temperature, we performed in vitro patch-clamp recordings of hair cells and their afferent fibers in amphibian papillae of either male or female bullfrogs. Afferent fibers exhibited a wide heterogeneity in membrane input resistance (Rin) from 100 mΩ to 1000 mΩ, which may contribute to variations in spike threshold and firing frequency. At higher temperatures, most fibers increased their frequency of spike firing due to an increase in spontaneous EPSC frequencies. Hair cell resting membrane potential (Vrest) remained surprisingly stable during temperature increases, because Ca2+ influx and K+ outflux increased simultaneously. This increase in Ca2+ current likely enhanced spontaneous EPSC frequencies. These larger "leak currents" at Vrest also lowered Rin and produced higher electrical resonant frequencies. Lowering Rin will reduce the hair cells receptor potential and presumably moderate the systems sensitivity. Using membrane capacitance measurements, we suggest that hair cells can partially compensate for this reduced sensitivity by increasing exocytosis efficiency and the size of the readily releasable pool of synaptic vesicles. Furthermore, paired recordings of hair cells and their afferent fibers showed that synaptic delays shortened and multivesicular release becomes more synchronous at higher temperatures, which should improve temporal precision. Together, our results explain many previous in vivo observations on the temperature dependence of spikes in auditory nerves.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The vertebrate inner ear detects and transmits auditory information over a broad dynamic range of sound frequency and intensity. It achieves remarkable sensitivity to soft sounds and precise frequency selectivity. How does the ear of cold-blooded vertebrates maintain its performance level as temperature changes? More specifically, how does the hair cell to afferent fiber synapse in bullfrog amphibian papilla adjust to a wide range of physiological temperatures without losing its sensitivity and temporal fidelity to sound signals? This study uses in vitro experiments to reveal the biophysical mechanisms that explain many observations made from in vivo auditory nerve fiber recordings. We find that higher temperature facilitates vesicle exocytosis and electrical tuning to higher sound frequencies, which benefits sensitivity and selectivity.

Presynaptic Diversity Revealed by Ca2+-Permeable AMPA Receptors at the Calyx of Held Synapse.

GluA2-lacking Ca2+-permeable AMPARs (CP-AMPARs) play integral roles in synaptic plasticity and can mediate excitotoxic cellular signaling at glutamatergic synapses. However, the developmental profile of functional CP-AMPARs at the auditory brainstem remains poorly understood. Through a combination of electrophysiological and live-cell Ca2+ imaging from mice of either sex, we show that the synaptic release of glutamate from the calyx of Held nerve terminal activates CP-AMPARs in the principal cells of the medial nucleus of the trapezoid body in the brainstem. This leads to significant Ca2+ influx through these receptors before the onset of hearing at postnatal day 12 (P12). Using a selective open channel blocker of CP-AMPARs, IEM-1460, we estimate that ∼80% of the AMPAR population are permeable to Ca2+ at immature P4-P5 synapses. However, after the onset of hearing, Ca2+ influx through these receptors was greatly reduced. We estimate that CP-AMPARs comprise approximately 40% and 33% of the AMPAR population at P18-P22 and P30-P34, respectively. By quantifying the rate of EPSC block by IEM-1460, we found an increased heterogeneity in glutamate release probability for adult-like calyces (P30-P34). Using tetraethylammonium (TEA), a presynaptic potassium channel blocker, we show that the apparent reduction of CP-AMPARs in more mature synapses is not a consequence of presynaptic action potential (AP) speeding. Finally, through postsynaptic AP recordings, we show that inhibition of CP-AMPARs reduces spike fidelity in juvenile synapses, but not in more mature synapses. We conclude that the expression of functional CP-AMPARs declines over early postnatal development in the calyx of Held synapse.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The calyx of Held synapse is pivotal to the circuitry that computes sound localization. Postsynaptic Ca2+ influx via AMPARs may be critical for signaling the maturation of this brainstem synapse. The GluA4 subunit may dominate the AMPAR complex at mature synapses because of its fast gating kinetics and large unitary conductance. The expectation is that AMPARs dominated by GluA4 subunits should be highly Ca2+ permeable. However, we find that Ca2+-permeable AMPAR expression declines during postnatal development. Using the rate of EPSC block by IEM-1460, an open channel blocker of Ca2+-permeable AMPARs, we propose a novel method to determine glutamate release probability and uncover an increased heterogeneity in release probability for more mature calyces of Held nerve terminals.

Distinct Actions of Voltage-Activated Ca2+ Channel Block on Spontaneous Release at Excitatory and Inhibitory Central Synapses.

At chemical synapses, voltage-activated calcium channels (VACCs) mediate Ca2+ influx to trigger action potential-evoked neurotransmitter release. However, the mechanisms by which Ca2+ regulates spontaneous transmission have not been fully determined. We have shown that VACCs are a major trigger of spontaneous release at neocortical inhibitory synapses but not at excitatory synapses, suggesting fundamental differences in spontaneous neurotransmission at GABAergic and glutamatergic synapses. Recently, VACC blockers were reported to reduce spontaneous release of glutamate and it was proposed that there was conservation of underlying mechanisms of neurotransmission at excitatory and inhibitory synapses. Furthermore, it was hypothesized that the different effects on excitatory and inhibitory synapses may have resulted from off-target actions of Cd2+, a nonselective VACC blocker, or other variations in experimental conditions. Here we report that in mouse neocortical neurons, selective and nonselective VACC blockers inhibit spontaneous release at inhibitory but not at excitatory terminals, and that this pattern is observed in culture and slice preparations as well as in synapses from acute slices of the auditory brainstem. The voltage dependence of Cd2+ block of VACCs accounts for the apparent lower potency of Cd2+ on spontaneous release of GABA than on VACC current amplitudes. Our findings indicate fundamental differences in the regulation of spontaneous release at inhibitory and excitatory synapses by stochastic VACC activity that extend beyond the cortex to the brainstem.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Presynaptic Ca2+ entry via voltage-activated calcium channels (VACCs) is the major trigger of action potential-evoked synaptic release. However, the role of VACCs in the regulation of spontaneous neurotransmitter release (in the absence of a synchronizing action potential) remains controversial. We show that spontaneous release is affected differently by VACCs at excitatory and inhibitory synapses. At inhibitory synapses, stochastic openings of VACCs trigger the majority of spontaneous release, whereas they do not affect spontaneous release at excitatory synapses. We find this pattern to be wide ranging, holding for large and small synapses in the neocortex and brainstem. These findings indicate fundamental differences of the Ca2+ dependence of spontaneous release at excitatory and inhibitory synapses and heterogeneity of the mechanisms of release across the CNS.

The Coupling between Ca2+ Channels and the Exocytotic Ca2+ Sensor at Hair Cell Ribbon Synapses Varies Tonotopically along the Mature Cochlea.

The cochlea processes auditory signals over a wide range of frequencies and intensities. However, the transfer characteristics at hair cell ribbon synapses are still poorly understood at different frequency locations along the cochlea. Using recordings from mature gerbils, we report here a surprisingly strong block of exocytosis by the slow Ca2+ buffer EGTA (10 mM) in basal hair cells tuned to high frequencies (∼30 kHz). In addition, using recordings from gerbil, mouse, and bullfrog auditory organs, we find that the spatial coupling between Ca2+ influx and exocytosis changes from nanodomain in low-frequency tuned hair cells (∼<2 kHz) to progressively more microdomain in high-frequency cells (∼>2 kHz). Hair cell synapses have thus developed remarkable frequency-dependent tuning of exocytosis: accurate low-latency encoding of onset and offset of sound intensity in the cochlea's base and submillisecond encoding of membrane receptor potential fluctuations in the apex for precise phase-locking to sound signals. We also found that synaptic vesicle pool recovery from depletion was sensitive to high concentrations of EGTA, suggesting that intracellular Ca2+ buffers play an important role in vesicle recruitment in both low- and high-frequency hair cells. In conclusion, our results indicate that microdomain coupling is important for exocytosis in high-frequency hair cells, suggesting a novel hypothesis for why these cells are more susceptible to sound-induced damage than low-frequency cells; high-frequency inner hair cells must have a low Ca2+ buffer capacity to sustain exocytosis, thus making them more prone to Ca2+-induced cytotoxicity.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT In the inner ear, sensory hair cells signal reception of sound. They do this by converting the sound-induced movement of their hair bundles present at the top of these cells, into an electrical current. This current depolarizes the hair cell and triggers the calcium-induced release of the neurotransmitter glutamate that activates the postsynaptic auditory fibers. The speed and precision of this process enables the brain to perceive the vital components of sound, such as frequency and intensity. We show that the coupling strength between calcium channels and the exocytosis calcium sensor at inner hair cell synapses changes along the mammalian cochlea such that the timing and/or intensity of sound is encoded with high precision.

Ca2+-Permeable AMPARs Mediate Glutamatergic Transmission and Excitotoxic Damage at the Hair Cell Ribbon Synapse.

We report functional and structural evidence for GluA2-lacking Ca2+-permeable AMPARs (CP-AMPARs) at the mature hair cell ribbon synapse. By using the methodological advantages of three species (of either sex), we demonstrate that CP-AMPARs are present at the hair cell synapse in an evolutionarily conserved manner. Via a combination of in vivo electrophysiological and Ca2+ imaging approaches in the larval zebrafish, we show that hair cell stimulation leads to robust Ca2+ influx into afferent terminals. Prolonged application of AMPA caused loss of afferent terminal responsiveness, whereas blocking CP-AMPARs protects terminals from excitotoxic swelling. Immunohistochemical analysis of AMPAR subunits in mature rat cochlea show regions within synapses lacking the GluA2 subunit. Paired recordings from adult bullfrog auditory synapses demonstrate that CP-AMPARs mediate a major component of glutamatergic transmission. Together, our results support the importance of CP-AMPARs in mediating transmission at the hair cell ribbon synapse. Further, excess Ca2+ entry via CP-AMPARs may underlie afferent terminal damage following excitotoxic challenge, suggesting that limiting Ca2+ levels in the afferent terminal may protect against cochlear synaptopathy associated with hearing loss.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT A single incidence of noise overexposure causes damage at the hair cell synapse that later leads to neurodegeneration and exacerbates age-related hearing loss. A first step toward understanding cochlear neurodegeneration is to identify the cause of initial excitotoxic damage to the postsynaptic neuron. Using a combination of immunohistochemical, electrophysiological, and Ca2+ imaging approaches in evolutionarily divergent species, we demonstrate that Ca2+-permeable AMPARs (CP-AMPARs) mediate glutamatergic transmission at the adult auditory hair cell synapse. Overexcitation of the terminal causes Ca2+ accumulation and swelling that can be prevented by blocking CP-AMPARs. We demonstrate that CP-AMPARs mediate transmission at this first-order sensory synapse and that limiting Ca2+ accumulation in the terminal may protect against hearing loss.

Proton-mediated block of Ca2+ channels during multivesicular release regulates short-term plasticity at an auditory hair cell synapse.

Synaptic vesicles release both neurotransmitter and protons during exocytosis, which may result in a transient acidification of the synaptic cleft that can block Ca(2+) channels located close to the sites of exocytosis. Evidence for this effect has been reported for retinal ribbon-type synapses, but not for hair cell ribbon synapses. Here, we report evidence for proton release from bullfrog auditory hair cells when they are held at more physiological, in vivo-like holding potentials (Vh = -60 mV) that facilitate multivesicular release. During paired recordings of hair cells and afferent fibers, L-type voltage-gated Ca(2+) currents showed a transient block, which was highly correlated with the EPSC amplitude (or the amount of glutamate release). This effect was masked at Vh = -90 mV due to the presence of a T-type Ca(2+) current and blocked by strong pH buffering with HEPES or TABS. Increasing vesicular pH with internal methylamine in hair cells also abolished the transient block. High concentrations of intracellular Ca(2+) buffer (10 mm BAPTA) greatly reduced exocytosis and abolished the transient block of the Ca(2+) current. We estimate that this transient block is due to the rapid multivesicular release of ∼600-1300 H(+) ions per synaptic ribbon. Finally, during a train of depolarizing pulses, paired pulse plasticity was significantly changed by using 40 mm HEPES in addition to bicarbonate buffer. We propose that this transient block of Ca(2+) current leads to more efficient exocytosis per Ca(2+) ion influx and it may contribute to spike adaptation at the auditory nerve.

Specialized postsynaptic morphology enhances neurotransmitter dilution and high-frequency signaling at an auditory synapse.

Sensory processing in the auditory system requires that synapses, neurons, and circuits encode information with particularly high temporal and spectral precision. In the amphibian papillia, sound frequencies up to 1 kHz are encoded along a tonotopic array of hair cells and transmitted to afferent fibers via fast, repetitive synaptic transmission, thereby promoting phase locking between the presynaptic and postsynaptic cells. Here, we have combined serial section electron microscopy, paired electrophysiological recordings, and Monte Carlo diffusion simulations to examine novel mechanisms that facilitate fast synaptic transmission in the inner ear of frogs (Rana catesbeiana and Rana pipiens). Three-dimensional anatomical reconstructions reveal specialized spine-like contacts between individual afferent fibers and hair cells that are surrounded by large, open regions of extracellular space. Morphologically realistic diffusion simulations suggest that these local enlargements in extracellular space speed transmitter clearance and reduce spillover between neighboring synapses, thereby minimizing postsynaptic receptor desensitization and improving sensitivity during prolonged signal transmission. Additionally, evoked EPSCs in afferent fibers are unaffected by glutamate transporter blockade, suggesting that transmitter diffusion and dilution, and not uptake, play a primary role in speeding neurotransmission and ensuring fidelity at these synapses.

Dysmyelination of auditory afferent axons increases the jitter of action potential timing during high-frequency firing.

Auditory neuropathies are linked to loss of temporal acuity of sound-evoked signals, which may be related to myelin loss. However, it is not known how myelin loss affects the waveform and temporal precision of action potentials (APs) in auditory CNS nerve terminals. Here we investigated the excitability of the calyx of Held nerve terminal in dysmyelinated auditory brainstems using the Long-Evans Shaker (LES) rat, a spontaneous mutant where compact myelin wrapping does not occur due to a genetic deletion of myelin basic protein. We found at relatively mature postnatal ages (15-17 d after birth) LES rat calyces showed prolonged spike latencies, indicative of a threefold reduction in the AP propagation velocity. Furthermore, LES rat afferent fiber-evoked APs showed a pronounced loss of temporal precision, even at low stimulation frequencies (10 Hz). While normal calyces were able to fire APs without failures at impressive rates of up to 1 kHz, LES calyces were unable to do so. Direct recordings of the presynaptic calyx terminal AP waveform revealed that myelin loss does not affect the AP spike upstroke and downstroke kinetics, but dysmyelination reduces the after-depolarization and enhances the fast after-hyperpolarization peak following the AP spike in the LES rat. Together these findings show that proper myelination is essential not only for fast AP propagation, but also for precise presynaptic AP firing that minimizes both spike jitter and failures, two characteristics critically important for the accurate processing of sound signals in the auditory brainstem.

Paired-pulse plasticity in the strength and latency of light-evoked lateral inhibition to retinal bipolar cell terminals.

Synapses in the inner plexiform layer of the retina undergo short-term plasticity that may mediate different forms of adaptation to regularities in light stimuli. Using patch-clamp recordings from axotomized goldfish Mb bipolar cell (BC) terminals with paired-pulse light stimulation, we isolated and quantified the short-term plasticity of GABAergic lateral IPSCs (L-IPSCs). Bright light stimulation evoked ON and OFF L-IPSCs in axotomized BCs, which had distinct onset latencies (∼50-80 and ∼70-150 ms, respectively) that depended on background light adaptation. We observed plasticity in both the synaptic strength and latency of the L-IPSCs. With paired light stimulation, latencies of ON L-IPSCs increased at paired-pulse intervals (PPIs) of 50 and 300 ms, whereas OFF L-IPSC latencies decreased at the 300 ms PPI. ON L-IPSCs showed paired-pulse depression at intervals <1 s, whereas OFF L-IPSCs showed depression at intervals ≤1 s and amplitude facilitation at longer intervals (1-2 s). This biphasic form of L-IPSC plasticity may underlie adaptation and sensitization to surround temporal contrast over multiple timescales. Block of retinal signaling at GABA(A)Rs and AMPARs differentially affected ON and OFF L-IPSCs, confirming that these two types of feedback inhibition are mediated by distinct and convergent retinal pathways with different mechanisms of plasticity. We propose that these plastic changes in the strength and timing of L-IPSCs help to dynamically shape the time course of glutamate release from ON-type BC terminals. Short-term plasticity of L-IPSCs may thus influence the strength, timing, and spatial extent of amacrine and ganglion cell inhibitory surrounds.

Single Ca2+ channels and exocytosis at sensory synapses.

Hair cell synapses in the ear and photoreceptor synapses in the eye are the first synapses in the auditory and visual system. These specialized synapses transmit a large amount of sensory information in a fast and efficient manner. Moreover, both small and large signals with widely variable kinetics must be quickly encoded and reliably transmitted to allow an animal to rapidly monitor and react to its environment. Here we briefly review some aspects of these primary synapses, which are characterized by a synaptic ribbon in their active zones of transmitter release. We propose that these synapses are themselves highly specialized for the task at hand. Photoreceptor and bipolar cell ribbon synapses in the retina appear to have versatile properties that permit both tonic and phasic transmitter release. This allows them to transmit changes of both luminance and contrast within a visual field at different ambient light levels. By contrast, hair cell ribbon synapses are specialized for a highly synchronous form of multivesicular release that may be critical for phase locking to low-frequency sound-evoked signals at both low and high sound intensities. The microarchitecture of a hair cell synapse may be such that the opening of a single Ca(2+) channel evokes the simultaneous exocytosis of multiple synaptic vesicles. Thus, the differing demands of sensory encoding in the eye and ear generate diverse designs and capabilities for their ribbon synapses.

Cell type specializations of the vocal-motor cortex in songbirds.

Identifying molecular specializations in cortical circuitry supporting complex behaviors, like learned vocalizations, requires understanding of the neuroanatomical context from which these circuits arise. In songbirds, the robust arcopallial nucleus (RA) provides descending cortical projections for fine vocal-motor control. Using single-nuclei transcriptomics and spatial gene expression mapping in zebra finches, we have defined cell types and molecular specializations that distinguish RA from adjacent regions involved in non-vocal motor and sensory processing. We describe an RA-specific projection neuron, differential inhibitory subtypes, and glia specializations and have probed predicted GABAergic interneuron subtypes electrophysiologically within RA. Several cell-specific markers arise developmentally in a sex-dependent manner. Our interactive apps integrate cellular data with developmental and spatial distribution data from the gene expression brain atlas ZEBrA. Users can explore molecular specializations of vocal-motor neurons and support cells that likely reflect adaptations key to the physiology and evolution of vocal control circuits and refined motor skills.

Functional maturation of the rod bipolar to AII-amacrine cell ribbon synapse in the mouse retina.

Retinal ribbon synapses undergo functional changes after eye opening that remain uncharacterized. Using light-flash stimulation and paired patch-clamp recordings, we examined the maturation of the ribbon synapse between rod bipolar cells (RBCs) and AII-amacrine cells (AII-ACs) after eye opening (postnatal day 14) in the mouse retina at near physiological temperatures. We find that light-evoked excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs) in AII-ACs exhibit a slow sustained component that increases in magnitude with advancing age, whereas a fast transient component remains unchanged. Similarly, paired recordings reveal a dual-component EPSC with a slower sustained component that increases during development, even though the miniature EPSC (mEPSC) amplitude and kinetics do not change significantly. We thus propose that the readily releasable pool of vesicles from RBCs increases after eye opening, and we estimate that a short light flash can evoke the release of ∼4,000 vesicles onto a single mature AII-AC.

Motor cortex analogue neurons in songbirds utilize Kv3 channels to generate ultranarrow spikes.

Complex motor skills in vertebrates require specialized upper motor neurons with precise action potential (AP) firing. To examine how diverse populations of upper motor neurons subserve distinct functions and the specific repertoire of ion channels involved, we conducted a thorough study of the excitability of upper motor neurons controlling somatic motor function in the zebra finch. We found that robustus arcopallialis projection neurons (RAPNs), key command neurons for song production, exhibit ultranarrow spikes and higher firing rates compared to neurons controlling non-vocal somatic motor functions (dorsal intermediate arcopallium [AId] neurons). Pharmacological and molecular data indicate that this striking difference is associated with the higher expression in RAPNs of high threshold, fast-activating voltage-gated Kv3 channels, that likely contain Kv3.1 (KCNC1) subunits. The spike waveform and Kv3.1 expression in RAPNs mirror properties of Betz cells, specialized upper motor neurons involved in fine digit control in humans and other primates but absent in rodents. Our study thus provides evidence that songbirds and primates have convergently evolved the use of Kv3.1 to ensure precise, rapid AP firing in upper motor neurons controlling fast and complex motor skills.