Reproductive endocrinology, morphological traits, and sexual selection in a population of wild South African giraffes.

Sex steroids are pervasive in mammals and evolutionarily conserved, but differences in the nuances of endocrine profiles characterize distinct species. Two sex steroids, testosterone and progesterone, feature prominently in the life history of mammalian taxa, but neither one has been analyzed from wild giraffes. Our study was designed to address this gap in knowledge by examining how these sex steroids are related to biological features and giraffe life history. We conducted the research at Rooipoort Nature Reserve a 44,000 ha private nature reserve in South Africa on a population of South African giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis giraffa). Eleven adult giraffe cows and seven adult bulls were immobilized and various biological samples and morphological measurements were obtained. We analyzed both testosterone and progesterone using Ultra High Performance Liquid Chromotography - Tandem Mass Spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS). We found that non-pregnant females had lower progesterone concentrations than pregnant females and that those in the last trimester of pregnancy showed a slight drop in progesterone, as well as an increase in testosterone. Among males, chronological age was correlated with testicle size, testosterone concentrations, and ossicone volume. We propose that the progesterone decline functions partly to accelerate resumption of ovulation because giraffes become pregnant while lactating, and that the testosterone elevation provides an endocrine mileu for female defense of neonatal calves, given that lion predation is a major threat to calf survival. We suggest that male reproductive strategies are mediated by the age-related impacts of testosterone on growth in both body mass and ossicone volume as a consequence of sexual selection. We conclude by noting that the robust and solid ossicones of male giraffes function in mate competition as wedges that are used to topple opponents by raising their legs and placing them in an off-balanced position that can seriously injure them when falling to the ground.

Genomic analysis reveals limited hybridization among three giraffe species in Kenya.

BACKGROUND: In the speciation continuum, the strength of reproductive isolation varies, and species boundaries are blurred by gene flow. Interbreeding among giraffe (Giraffa spp.) in captivity is known, and anecdotal reports of natural hybrids exist. In Kenya, Nubian (G. camelopardalis camelopardalis), reticulated (G. reticulata), and Masai giraffe sensu stricto (G. tippelskirchi tippelskirchi) are parapatric, and thus, the country might be a melting pot for these taxa. We analyzed 128 genomes of wild giraffe, 113 newly sequenced, representing these three taxa. RESULTS: We found varying levels of Nubian ancestry in 13 reticulated giraffe sampled across the Laikipia Plateau most likely reflecting historical gene flow between these two lineages. Although comparatively weaker signs of ancestral gene flow and potential mitochondrial introgression from reticulated into Masai giraffe were also detected, estimated admixture levels between these two lineages are minimal. Importantly, contemporary gene flow between East African giraffe lineages was not statistically significant. Effective population sizes have declined since the Late Pleistocene, more severely for Nubian and reticulated giraffe. CONCLUSIONS: Despite historically hybridizing, these three giraffe lineages have maintained their overall genomic integrity suggesting effective reproductive isolation, consistent with the previous classification of giraffe into four species.

Osteohistology and palaeobiology of giraffids from the Mio-Pliocene Langebaanweg (South Africa).

The reconstruction of life history traits, such as growth rate, age at maturity and age at death can be estimated from the histological analysis of long bones. Here, we studied 20 long bones (metapodials, tibia and femora) of Sivatherium hendeyi and Giraffa cf. Giraffa jumae recovered from the Miocene-Pliocene locality of Langebaanweg on the West Coast of South Africa. We analysed the long bone histology and growth marks of juvenile and adult specimens of these taxa. Our results show that bone tissue types and vascular canal orientation varies during ontogeny, as well as between the different skeletal elements, and also across single cross sections of bones. Majority of our specimens appear to be still growing, with only an adult metacarpal of S. hendeyi being skeletally mature as indicated by the presence of an outer circumferential layer. We propose that the growth marks preserved in the cortices of the bones studied are most likely related to multiple catastrophic events as opposed to being annual/seasonal.

Extinction risks and mitigation for a megaherbivore, the giraffe, in a human-influenced landscape under climate change.

Megaherbivores play "outsized" roles in ecosystem functioning but are vulnerable to human impacts such as overhunting, land-use changes, and climate extremes. However, such impacts-and combinations of these impacts-on population dynamics are rarely examined using empirical data. To guide effective conservation actions under increasing global-change pressures, we developed a socially structured individual-based model (IBM) using long-term demographic data from female giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis) in a human-influenced landscape in northern Tanzania, the Tarangire Ecosystem. This unfenced system includes savanna habitats with a wide gradient of anthropogenic pressures, from national parks, a wildlife ranch and community conservation areas, to unprotected village lands. We then simulated and projected over 50 years how realistic environmental and land-use management changes might affect this metapopulation of female giraffes. Scenarios included: (1) anthropogenic land-use changes including roads and agricultural/urban expansion; (2) reduction or improvement in wildlife law enforcement measures; (3) changes in populations of natural predators and migratory alternative prey; and (4) increases in rainfall as predicted for East Africa. The factor causing the greatest risk of rapid declines in female giraffe abundance in our simulations was a reduction in law enforcement leading to more poaching. Other threats decreased abundances of giraffes, but improving law enforcement in both of the study area's protected areas mitigated these impacts: a 0.01 increase in giraffe survival probability from improved law enforcement mitigated a 25% rise in heavy rainfall events by increasing abundance 19%, and mitigated the expansion of towns and blockage of dispersal movements by increasing abundance 22%. Our IBM enabled us to further quantify fine-scale abundance changes among female giraffe social communities, revealing potential source-sink interactions within the metapopulation. This flexible methodology can be adapted to test additional ecological questions in this landscape, or to model populations of giraffes or other species in different ecosystems.

Giraffe skin disease: Clinicopathologic characterization of cutaneous filariasis in the critically endangered Nubian giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis camelopardalis).

Giraffe skin disease (GSD) is an emerging disease of free-ranging giraffe recognized in the last 25 years in several species, including the critically endangered Nubian giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis camelopardalis) of Uganda. Identifying the cause of GSD and understanding its impact on health were deemed paramount to supporting these vulnerable populations. Sixty-four giraffes were immobilized in Murchison Falls National Park, Uganda, from 2017 to 2019, and GSD lesions were opportunistically biopsied. Fifty-five giraffes (86%) had GSD lesions on the neck, axilla, chest, and cranial trunk. Lesions were categorized into early, intermediary, and dormant stages based on gross and histological characteristics. Early lesions were smaller, crusted nodules with eosinophilic and pyogranulomatous dermatitis and furunculosis. Intermediary lesions were thick plaques of proliferative and fissured hyperkeratosis and acanthosis with dense dermal granulation tissue and severe eosinophilic and granulomatous dermatitis. Lesions appeared to resolve to dormancy, with dormant lesions consisting of hairless plaques of hyperkeratosis with dermal scarring and residual inflammation. The periphery of early and intermediary lesions included follicular granulomas containing adult filarid nematodes, with myriad encysted microfilariae in the superficial dermis. Stage L3 larvae were common in early and intermediary lesions, and dormant lesions had remnant encysted microfilariae with no adult or stage L3 larvae. Nematodes were morphologically and genetically novel with close identity to Stephanofilaria spp. and Brugia malayi, which cause infectious filariasis. Identification of potential insect vectors, long-term monitoring of GSD lesions, and evaluating response to therapy is ongoing in the efforts to help conserve the Nubian giraffe.

Sociability increases survival of adult female giraffes.

Studies increasingly show that social connectedness plays a key role in determining survival, in addition to natural and anthropogenic environmental factors. Few studies, however, integrated social, non-social and demographic data to elucidate what components of an animal's socio-ecological environment are most important to their survival. Female giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis) form structured societies with highly dynamic group membership but stable long-term associations. We examined the relative contributions of sociability (relationship strength, gregariousness and betweenness), together with those of the natural (food sources and vegetation types) and anthropogenic environment (distance from human settlements), to adult female giraffe survival. We tested predictions about the influence of sociability and natural and human factors at two social levels: the individual and the social community. Survival was primarily driven by individual- rather than community-level social factors. Gregariousness (the number of other females each individual was observed with on average) was most important in explaining variation in female adult survival, more than other social traits and any natural or anthropogenic environmental factors. For adult female giraffes, grouping with more other females, even as group membership frequently changes, is correlated with better survival, and this sociability appears to be more important than several attributes of their non-social environment.

Proximity to humans affects local social structure in a giraffe metapopulation.

Experimental laboratory evidence suggests that animals with disrupted social systems express weakened relationship strengths and have more exclusive social associations, and that these changes have functional consequences. A key question is whether anthropogenic pressures have a similar impact on the social structure of wild animal communities. We addressed this question by constructing a social network from 6 years of systematically collected photographic capture-recapture data spanning 1,139 individual adult female Masai giraffes inhabiting a large, unfenced, heterogeneous landscape in northern Tanzania. We then used the social network to identify distinct social communities, and tested whether social or anthropogenic and other environmental factors predicted differences in social structure among these communities. We reveal that giraffes have a multilevel social structure. Local preferences in associations among individuals scale up to a number of distinct, but spatially overlapping, social communities, that can be viewed as a large interconnected metapopulation. We then find that communities that are closer to traditional compounds of Indigenous Masai people express weaker relationship strengths and the giraffes in these communities are more exclusive in their associations. The patterns we characterize in response to proximity to humans reflect the predictions of disrupted social systems. Near bomas, fuelwood cutting can reduce food resources, and groups of giraffes are more likely to encounter livestock and humans on foot, thus disrupting the social associations among group members. Our results suggest that human presence could potentially be playing an important role in determining the conservation future of this megaherbivore.

Research Highlight: Social dispersal in giraffes.

Research Highlight: Bond, M. L., Lee, D. E., Ozgul, A., Farine, D. R., & König, B. (2021). Leaving by staying: Social dispersal in giraffes. Journal of Animal Ecology, https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2656.13582. Dispersal is a key ecological and evolutionary process, which shows marked variability between and within species. The social and kinship structure of species fundamentally affects the patterns and types of dispersal, but information on how animals with fission-fusion group dynamics disperse is missing. Bond et al. provide novel data on natal dispersal of giraffe calves in relation to their dynamic multilayered social system, showing that individuals from both sexes can disperse socially, by switching association with different social groups, without leaving their natal area. The results highlight that traditional spatial-only measures of dispersal, such as dispersal distance, may be inadequate for social species with overlapping social units.

Fission-fusion dynamics of a megaherbivore are driven by ecological, anthropogenic, temporal, and social factors.

Fission-fusion dynamics hypothetically enable animals to exploit dispersed and ephemeral food resources while minimizing predation risk. Disentangling factors affecting group size and composition of fission-fusion species facilitates their management and conservation. We used a 6-year data set of 2888 group formations of Masai giraffes in Tanzania to investigate determinants of social group size and structure. We tested whether ecological (lion density, vegetation structure, and prevalence of primary forage plants), anthropogenic (proximity to human settlements), temporal (rainy or dry season), and social (local giraffe density, adult sex ratio, and proportion of calves) factors explained variation in group size and sex- and age-class composition. Food availability rather than predation risk mediated grouping dynamics of adult giraffes, while predation risk was the most important factor influencing congregations with calves. Smallest group sizes occurred during the food-limiting dry season. Where predation risk was greatest, groups with calves were in bushlands more than in open grasslands, but the groups were smaller in size, suggesting mothers adopted a strategy of hiding calves rather than a predator-detection-and-dilution strategy. Groups with calves also were farther from towns but closer to traditional human compounds (bomas). This may be due to lower predator densities, and thus reduced calf predation risk, near bomas but higher human disturbance near towns. Sex- and age-based differences in habitat use reflected nursing mothers' need for high-quality forage while also protecting their young from predation. Our results have implications for conservation and management of giraffes and other large-bodied, herd-forming ungulates in heterogeneous environments subject to anthropogenic threats.

COMPARISON OF ANESTHESIA OF ADULT GIRAFFE (GIRAFFA CAMELOPARDALIS) USING MEDETOMIDINE-KETAMINE WITH AND WITHOUT A POTENT OPIOID.

Two anesthetic protocols in adult giraffe were compared by retrospective study. Thirteen anesthesia records for medetomidine-ketamine (MK) and seven for medetomidine-ketamine with a potent opioid (MKO) were evaluated for differences in demographic, behavioral, drug, and respiratory parameters. Giraffe stood significantly more quickly with MKO vs MK though MK animals were physically restrained to preclude premature standing as part of normal recovery practices (5.5 min vs 21.4 min, P = 0.01). Regurgitation was recorded in 5/13 and resedation in 4/13 MK animals. The range of values for blood lactate was higher in MKO (5.18-11.25 mM/L) than in MK giraffe (0.78-6.08 mM/L). Despite limitations of a retrospective study, both MK and MKO giraffe anesthesia protocols exhibit benefits and side effects. Awareness and management of these factors will improve outcomes until standardized, prospective studies of giraffe immobilization offer more comprehensive guidance on protocol selection.

GROWTH, HUSBANDRY, AND DIETS OF FIVE SUCCESSFULLY HAND-REARED ORPHANED GIRAFFE CALVES (GIRAFFA CAMELOPARDALIS ROTHSCHILDI AND GIRAFFA CAMELOPARDALIS RETICULATA).

Giraffe in the wild are in ongoing decline because of poaching and habitat loss and fragmentation, and were recently assessed as "vulnerable" on the IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) Red List of Threatened Species. Captive breeding and saving each individual are therefore becoming more important to save this species from extinction. This paper describes the husbandry and diets of successfully hand-reared Rothschild's giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis rothschildi; n = 3) and reticulated giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis reticulata; n = 2). All calves were initially fed with bovine colostrum followed by cow's milk (Holstein milk; Holstein milk with 10% of bovine colostrum; Jersey and Guernsey milk). Additionally, lactase enzymes (Lactaidt, Johnson & Johnson Inc., Guelp, Ontario N1K1A5, Canada) and probiotics (Probiost, Vets Plus, Inc., Menomonie, WI 54751, USA) were used. Average growth varied from 764 to 1,239 g/day from birth until 2 mo of age and between 508 and 1,161 g/day from birth until last measurement before weaning. Hand-reared calves gained up to 21 cm in height within the first month and 82-138% of their birth weight during the first 2 mo. The giraffes were weaned at 6 (n = 1), 8 (n = 3), and 11.5 (n = 1) mo and successfully socialized and introduced to other giraffes. The described diets and husbandry proved to be effective in all five calves. Large amounts of cow's milk per feeding (up to 6 L) did not result in gastrointestinal problems.

PILOT STUDY: PHARMACOKINETICS OF ORAL AND TOPICAL MOXIDECTIN IN THE RETICULATED GIRAFFE (GIRAFFA CAMELOPARDALIS).

The objective of this study was to obtain an estimate of the pharmacokinetic parameters of moxidectin administered at a dosage of 1 mg/kg orally and topically to healthy adult giraffe ( Giraffa camelopardalis ). The maximum plasma concentration (CMAX) of moxidectin after oral and topical administration was 69.2 ± 4.6 and 18.6 ± 16.1 ng/ml (P = 0.045), respectively. The areas under the plasma curve (AUC), a measure of total drug exposure, was 532.0 ± 232.3 and 209.1 ± 180.0 day*ng/ml (P = 0.308) for the oral and topical administrations, respectively. These data suggest moxidectin achieves higher peak plasma concentrations following oral administration compared with topical (transdermal) administration using the cattle pour-on formulation. Additionally, the percent coefficient of variation, a measure of variability, was smaller for the oral formulation (CMAX %CV = 7%; AUC %CV = 44%) compared with the topical formulation (CMAX %CV = 86%; AUC %CV = 86%). The smaller variability suggests that oral administration of moxidectin produces more predictable and less variable drug absorption than topical administration in giraffe and is the preferred route of administration.

CONGENITAL NUTRITIONAL MYODEGENERATION (WHITE MUSCLE DISEASE) IN A GIRAFFE ( GIRAFFA CAMELOPARDALIS) CALF.

It is well known that vitamin E and selenium deficiencies in domestic ruminants can lead to white muscle disease. After a clinically normal gestation period at Ouwehand Zoo in the Netherlands, a newborn giraffe ( Giraffa camelopardalis) calf showed clinical signs of white muscle disease almost immediately after birth. The calf was rejected by the mother and was euthanized 3 days later because of deterioration of clinical signs. At necropsy, pulmonary edema and pallor of skeletal and heart muscles was noted. Histologically, there was hyaline degeneration of skeletal muscle myocytes and pulmonary edema. Blood concentrations of vitamin E were ≤ 0.7 mg/L. Based on clinical, biochemical, and gross and microscopic pathological findings, congenital nutritional myodegeneration was diagnosed. This case of neonatal white muscle disease is particularly remarkable given that the diet of the dam contained more than the recommended amount of vitamin E.

PIGMENTED VILLONODULAR SYNOVITIS IN A RETICULATED GIRAFFE (GIRAFFA CAMELOPARDALIS).

: A 17-yr-old, female, captive-born reticulated giraffe ( Giraffa camelopardalis ) presented with acute-onset lameness of the right metacarpophalangeal (fetlock) joint. Despite multiple courses of treatment, the lameness and swelling progressively worsened over a 3.5-yr period, and the giraffe was euthanized. At necropsy, gross and microscopic changes in the right, front fetlock and associated flexor tendon sheath included villous synovial hyperplasia and the formation of discrete pigmented nodules within synovial membranes. Histologically, the nodules were composed of abundant, fibrous connective tissue with heavy macrophage infiltration, hemosiderin deposition, and distinctive, multinucleated cells that resembled osteoclasts. These findings were consistent with pigmented villonodular synovitis (PVNS), a rare condition affecting both humans and animals. Although the pathophysiology of PVNS is poorly understood, lesions exhibit features of both neoplastic and reactive inflammatory processes. This case report represents, to the authors' knowledge, the first description of PVNS in a nondomestic ungulate.

ATTEMPTED SURGICAL CORRECTION OF A PERSISTENT RIGHT FOURTH AORTIC ARCH IN A JUVENILE ROTHSCHILD'S GIRAFFE (GIRAFFA CAMELOPARDALIS ROTHSCHILDI).

A 5-mo-old female Rothschild's giraffe ( Giraffa camelopardalis rothschildi) presented for regurgitation. Esophagoscopy at 24 wk of age revealed a markedly dilated cranial esophagus with a tight stricture at the level of the heart base consistent with a vascular ring anomaly. Surgical exploration confirmed persistent right fourth aortic arch with ductus originating from left subclavian artery at its junction with the aorta and left subclavian artery. The patent ductus arteriosus was surgically ligated. The procedure was complicated by limited surgical access and vascular friability resulting in uncontrollable hemorrhage, and the animal was euthanatized. The animal's large size and unique shape precluded preoperative examination by computed tomography. Surgical accessibility was poor because cranial retraction of the thoracic limb was limited. Histology revealed focal degeneration of the aorta and subclavian artery and muscular degeneration of the esophagus. Degeneration was attributed to local hypoxia from compression by the vascular structure as the animal grew.

Effects of guest feeding programs on captive giraffe behavior.

Zoological institutions develop human-animal interaction opportunities for visitors to advance missions of conservation, education, and recreation; however, the animal welfare implications largely have yet to be evaluated. This behavioral study was the first to quantify impacts of guest feeding programs on captive giraffe behavior and welfare, by documenting giraffe time budgets that included both normal and stereotypic behaviors. Thirty giraffes from nine zoos (six zoos with varying guest feeding programs and three without) were observed using both instantaneous scan sampling and continuous behavioral sampling techniques. All data were collected during summer 2012 and analyzed using linear mixed models. The degree of individual giraffe participation in guest feeding programs was positively associated with increased time spent idle and marginally associated with reduced time spent ruminating. Time spent participating in guest feeding programs had no effect on performance of stereotypic behaviors. When time spent eating routine diets was combined with time spent participating in guest feeding programs, individuals that spent more time engaged in total feeding behaviors tended to perform less oral stereotypic behavior such as object-licking and tongue-rolling. By extending foraging time and complexity, guest feeding programs have the potential to act as environmental enrichment and alleviate unfulfilled foraging motivations that may underlie oral stereotypic behaviors observed in many captive giraffes. However, management strategies may need to be adjusted to mitigate idleness and other program consequences. Further studies, especially pre-and-post-program implementation comparisons, are needed to better understand the influence of human-animal interactions on zoo animal behavior and welfare.

The weight of Rothschild giraffe-Is it really well known?

Despite being regularly bred in zoos, giraffes remain a challenge, especially in terms of feeding. Assessment of factors influencing growth and weight changes during ontogeny, as well as analysis of weight fluctuations in adult individuals, may become a critical point in captive diet evaluation. Knowledge about weight is a crucial husbandry tool; however, such data are rarely acquired. Using a unique dataset from regularly weighed Rothschild giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis rothschildi) from Prague zoo, we determined the growth functions of male and female giraffes and calculated weight gains during giraffe ontogeny. The mean weights of adult males and females were 1307 ± 52 and 835 ± 45 kg, respectively confirming the large overall dimensions of G. c. rothschildi in comparison with other giraffe subspecies. As the giraffe is a polygynous species showing considerable sexual dimorphism, we expected male calves to have larger first weights and faster growth during the most intensive period of maternal care. Growth rates and daily weight gains were higher in males than in females during the whole postnatal period. Males grew faster and longer than females. However, differences in weight between males and females appeared as late as after 1 year of age. The weight of adult males and non-pregnant adult females fluctuated significantly across seasons, being the highest during the autumn and winter months, respectively which may reflect the different effects of sexual activity and feeding ratios in males and females. Zoo Biol. 35:423-431, 2016. © Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

MANAGEMENT OF OMPHALOPHLEBITIS AND UMBILICAL HERNIA IN THREE NEONATAL GIRAFFE (GIRAFFA CAMELOPARDALIS).

Umbilical disorders, including omphalophlebitis, omphaloarteritis, external umbilical abscesses, urachal abscesses, patent urachus, and umbilical hernias, represent a significant challenge to the health and well-being of a neonate. The three neonatal giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) in this report were evaluated for umbilical swellings. Two developed omphalophlebitis, and one had an uncomplicated umbilical hernia. Omphalophlebitis is an inflammation and/or infection of the umbilical vein. Giraffe calves with a failure of passive transfer may be predisposed and should be thoroughly evaluated for the condition. Umbilical hernias result from a failure of the umbilical ring to close after parturition or from malformation of the umbilical ring during embryogenesis. These problems were surgically corrected for all three individuals, although one died due to postsurgical complications. The risks involved include anesthetic complications, surgical dehiscence, and maternal rejection. Early detection and surgical intervention are recommended for the correction of omphalophlebitis and umbilical hernias in neonatal giraffe.

Activitybudget and foraging patterns ofNubian giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis camelopardalis) in Lake Nakuru National Park, Kenya.

The activity budget of giraffe in various African populations has been studied extensively, revealing that it is affected by body size, foraging patterns, and sex. Foraging patterns show an animal's feeding choices in its environment and are influenced by resource availability, competition, and predation risk. The ability of giraffe to survive and reproduce is significantly impacted by the variation in activity budget and foraging across different ecosystems. Our study focused on evaluating the seasonal activity budgets and foraging patterns of Nubian giraffe in Lake Nakuru National Park, Kenya. We used the scan sampling method to record the activity budget of giraffe which included foraging, movement, resting, and drinking water. We then evaluated if activities varied with the seasons. A total of 11,280 activities were documented, with 4560 (40.4%) occurring during the dry season and 6720 (59.6%) during the wet season. Foraging accounted for 53% of the time budget during the dry season, but increased to 57% during the wet season. There was a slight drop in records of movement (22%; n = 995 of 4560) and resting (25%; n = 1145 of 4560) from the dry season to the wet season (20%; n = 1375 out of 6720 and 22%; n = 1515 of 6720). During the dry season, females (53%) foraged longer than males (47%), whereas males (44%) had longer resting periods than females (56%). Giraffe frequently fed on Vachellia xanthophloea (67%; n = 4136 of 6215 foraging records), Maytenus senegalensis (19%), and Solanum incanum (9%) over both seasons. Overall, seasons had little impact on giraffe activity time budgets and foraging patterns in Lake Nakuru National Park. A better insight into the behavioural patterns of this subspecies will allow managers to enhance the protection and conservation of the species and its habitat. Heavy foraging on Vachellia by giraffe at LNNP has been associated with a population decline in number, so perhaps planting more of this species in LNNP could promote a rebound in numbers.

Saving the Last West African Giraffe Population: A Review of Its Conservation Status and Management.

The West African giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis peralta) was historically spread across much of the Sudano-Sahelian zone but is now restricted to Niger. Several factors resulted in their dramatic decline during the late 20th century. In 1996, only 49 individuals remained, concentrated in the 'Giraffe Zone'. Conservation activities implemented by the Government of Niger, supported by local communities and NGOs, facilitated their population numbers to increase. This review summarizes past and present conservation activities and evaluates their impact to advise and prioritize future conservation actions for the West African giraffe. The long-term conservation of the West African giraffe is highly dependent on the local communities who live alongside them, as well as supplementary support from local and international partners. Recent conservation initiatives range from community-based monitoring to the fitting of GPS satellite tags to better understand their habitat use, spatial movements to expansion areas, and environmental education to the establishment of the first satellite population of West African giraffe in Gadabedji Biosphere Reserve, the latter serving as a flagship for the future restoration of large mammal populations in West Africa. The integration of modern technologies and methods will hopefully provide better-quality data, improved spatial analyses, and greater understanding of giraffe ecology to inform the long-term management of West African giraffe.