RNA recoding in cephalopods tailors microtubule motor protein function.

RNA editing is a widespread epigenetic process that can alter the amino acid sequence of proteins, termed "recoding." In cephalopods, most transcripts are recoded, and recoding is hypothesized to be an adaptive strategy to generate phenotypic plasticity. However, how animals use RNA recoding dynamically is largely unexplored. We investigated the function of cephalopod RNA recoding in the microtubule motor proteins kinesin and dynein. We found that squid rapidly employ RNA recoding in response to changes in ocean temperature, and kinesin variants generated in cold seawater displayed enhanced motile properties in single-molecule experiments conducted in the cold. We also identified tissue-specific recoded squid kinesin variants that displayed distinct motile properties. Finally, we showed that cephalopod recoding sites can guide the discovery of functional substitutions in non-cephalopod kinesin and dynein. Thus, RNA recoding is a dynamic mechanism that generates phenotypic plasticity in cephalopods and can inform the characterization of conserved non-cephalopod proteins.

Temperature-dependent RNA editing in octopus extensively recodes the neural proteome.

In poikilotherms, temperature changes challenge the integration of physiological function. Within the complex nervous systems of the behaviorally sophisticated coleoid cephalopods, these problems are substantial. RNA editing by adenosine deamination is a well-positioned mechanism for environmental acclimation. We report that the neural proteome of Octopus bimaculoides undergoes massive reconfigurations via RNA editing following a temperature challenge. Over 13,000 codons are affected, and many alter proteins that are vital for neural processes. For two highly temperature-sensitive examples, recoding tunes protein function. For synaptotagmin, a key component of Ca2+-dependent neurotransmitter release, crystal structures and supporting experiments show that editing alters Ca2+ binding. For kinesin-1, a motor protein driving axonal transport, editing regulates transport velocity down microtubules. Seasonal sampling of wild-caught specimens indicates that temperature-dependent editing occurs in the field as well. These data show that A-to-I editing tunes neurophysiological function in response to temperature in octopus and most likely other coleoids.

Global Trends in Marine Plankton Diversity across Kingdoms of Life.

The ocean is home to myriad small planktonic organisms that underpin the functioning of marine ecosystems. However, their spatial patterns of diversity and the underlying drivers remain poorly known, precluding projections of their responses to global changes. Here we investigate the latitudinal gradients and global predictors of plankton diversity across archaea, bacteria, eukaryotes, and major virus clades using both molecular and imaging data from Tara Oceans. We show a decline of diversity for most planktonic groups toward the poles, mainly driven by decreasing ocean temperatures. Projections into the future suggest that severe warming of the surface ocean by the end of the 21st century could lead to tropicalization of the diversity of most planktonic groups in temperate and polar regions. These changes may have multiple consequences for marine ecosystem functioning and services and are expected to be particularly significant in key areas for carbon sequestration, fisheries, and marine conservation. VIDEO ABSTRACT.

Metabolic compensation and circadian resilience in prokaryotic cyanobacteria.

For a biological oscillator to function as a circadian pacemaker that confers a fitness advantage, its timing functions must be stable in response to environmental and metabolic fluctuations. One such stability enhancer, temperature compensation, has long been a defining characteristic of these timekeepers. However, an accurate biological timekeeper must also resist changes in metabolism, and this review suggests that temperature compensation is actually a subset of a larger phenomenon, namely metabolic compensation, which maintains the frequency of circadian oscillators in response to a host of factors that impinge on metabolism and would otherwise destabilize these clocks. The circadian system of prokaryotic cyanobacteria is an illustrative model because it is composed of transcriptional and nontranscriptional oscillators that are coupled to promote resilience. Moreover, the cyanobacterial circadian program regulates gene activity and metabolic pathways, and it can be manipulated to improve the expression of bioproducts that have practical value.

Human temperature regulation under heat stress in health, disease, and injury.

The human body constantly exchanges heat with the environment. Temperature regulation is a homeostatic feedback control system that ensures deep body temperature is maintained within narrow limits despite wide variations in environmental conditions and activity-related elevations in metabolic heat production. Extensive research has been performed to study the physiological regulation of deep body temperature. This review focuses on healthy and disordered human temperature regulation during heat stress. Central to this discussion is the notion that various morphological features, intrinsic factors, diseases, and injuries independently and interactively influence deep body temperature during exercise and/or exposure to hot ambient temperatures. The first sections review fundamental aspects of the human heat stress response, including the biophysical principles governing heat balance and the autonomic control of heat loss thermoeffectors. Next, we discuss the effects of different intrinsic factors (morphology, heat adaptation, biological sex, and age), diseases (neurological, cardiovascular, metabolic, and genetic), and injuries (spinal cord injury, deep burns, and heat stroke), with emphasis on the mechanisms by which these factors enhance or disturb the regulation of deep body temperature during heat stress. We conclude with key unanswered questions in this field of research.

The 10q26 Risk Haplotype of Age-Related Macular Degeneration Aggravates Subretinal Inflammation by Impairing Monocyte Elimination.

A minor haplotype of the 10q26 locus conveys the strongest genetic risk for age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Here, we examined the mechanisms underlying this susceptibility. We found that monocytes from homozygous carriers of the 10q26 AMD-risk haplotype expressed high amounts of the serine peptidase HTRA1, and HTRA1 located to mononuclear phagocytes (MPs) in eyes of non-carriers with AMD. HTRA1 induced the persistence of monocytes in the subretinal space and exacerbated pathogenic inflammation by hydrolyzing thrombospondin 1 (TSP1), which separated the two CD47-binding sites within TSP1 that are necessary for efficient CD47 activation. This HTRA1-induced inhibition of CD47 signaling induced the expression of pro-inflammatory osteopontin (OPN). OPN expression increased in early monocyte-derived macrophages in 10q26 risk carriers. In models of subretinal inflammation and AMD, OPN deletion or pharmacological inhibition reversed HTRA1-induced pathogenic MP persistence. Our findings argue for the therapeutic potential of CD47 agonists and OPN inhibitors for the treatment of AMD.

Natural temperature fluctuations promote COOLAIR regulation of FLC.

Plants monitor many aspects of their fluctuating environments to help align their development with seasons. Molecular understanding of how noisy temperature cues are registered has emerged from dissection of vernalization in Arabidopsis, which involves a multiphase cold-dependent silencing of the floral repressor locus FLOWERING LOCUS C (FLC). Cold-induced transcriptional silencing precedes a low probability PRC2 epigenetic switching mechanism. The epigenetic switch requires the absence of warm temperatures as well as long-term cold exposure. However, the natural temperature inputs into the earlier transcriptional silencing phase are less well understood. Here, through investigation of Arabidopsis accessions in natural and climatically distinct field sites, we show that the first seasonal frost strongly induces expression of COOLAIR, the antisense transcripts at FLC Chamber experiments delivering a constant mean temperature with different fluctuations showed the freezing induction of COOLAIR correlates with stronger repression of FLC mRNA. Identification of a mutant that ectopically activates COOLAIR revealed how COOLAIR up-regulation can directly reduce FLC expression. Consistent with this, transgenes designed to knockout COOLAIR perturbed the early phase of FLC silencing. However, all transgenes designed to remove COOLAIR resulted in increased production of novel convergent FLC antisense transcripts. Our study reveals how natural temperature fluctuations promote COOLAIR regulation of FLC, with the first autumn frost acting as a key indicator of autumn/winter arrival.

Winter fields antisense RNAs to kick off flowering.

FLOWERING LOCUS C (FLC), a MADS-box transcription factor, plays a major role in determining flowering time in Arabidopsis In this issue of Genes & Development, Zhao and colleagues (pp. 888-898) elucidate the role of COOLAIR antisense noncoding RNAs in FLC regulation through field trials and laboratory experiments. COOLAIR-mediated FLC silencing is induced by the first seasonal frost in the field and thus acts as a key molecular indicator during autumn for winter arrival.

A Conserved Kinase-Based Body-Temperature Sensor Globally Controls Alternative Splicing and Gene Expression.

Homeothermic organisms maintain their core body temperature in a narrow, tightly controlled range. Whether and how subtle circadian oscillations or disease-associated changes in core body temperature are sensed and integrated in gene expression programs remain elusive. Furthermore, a thermo-sensor capable of sensing the small temperature differentials leading to temperature-dependent sex determination (TSD) in poikilothermic reptiles has not been identified. Here, we show that the activity of CDC-like kinases (CLKs) is highly responsive to physiological temperature changes, which is conferred by structural rearrangements within the kinase activation segment. Lower body temperature activates CLKs resulting in strongly increased phosphorylation of SR proteins in vitro and in vivo. This globally controls temperature-dependent alternative splicing and gene expression, with wide implications in circadian, tissue-specific, and disease-associated settings. This temperature sensor is conserved across evolution and adapted to growth temperatures of diverse poikilotherms. The dynamic temperature range of reptilian CLK homologs suggests a role in TSD.

Epigenetic and transcription factors synergistically promote the high temperature response in plants.

Temperature is one of the main environmental cues affecting plant growth and development, and plants have evolved multiple mechanisms to sense and acclimate to high temperature. Emerging research has shown that transcription factors, epigenetic factors, and their coordination are essential for plant temperature responses and the resulting phenological adaptation. Here, we summarize recent advances in molecular and cellular mechanisms to understand how plants acclimate to high temperature and describe how plant meristems sense and integrate environmental signals. Furthermore, we lay out future directions for new technologies to reveal heterogeneous responses in different cell types thus improving plant environmental plasticity.

Mechanisms and physiological function of daily haemoglobin oxidation rhythms in red blood cells.

Cellular circadian rhythms confer temporal organisation upon physiology that is fundamental to human health. Rhythms are present in red blood cells (RBCs), the most abundant cell type in the body, but their physiological function is poorly understood. Here, we present a novel biochemical assay for haemoglobin (Hb) oxidation status which relies on a redox-sensitive covalent haem-Hb linkage that forms during SDS-mediated cell lysis. Formation of this linkage is lowest when ferrous Hb is oxidised, in the form of ferric metHb. Daily haemoglobin oxidation rhythms are observed in mouse and human RBCs cultured in vitro, or taken from humans in vivo, and are unaffected by mutations that affect circadian rhythms in nucleated cells. These rhythms correlate with daily rhythms in core body temperature, with temperature lowest when metHb levels are highest. Raising metHb levels with dietary sodium nitrite can further decrease daytime core body temperature in mice via nitric oxide (NO) signalling. These results extend our molecular understanding of RBC circadian rhythms and suggest they contribute to the regulation of body temperature.

Temperature-Responsive Competitive Inhibition of CRISPR-Cas9.

CRISPR-Cas immune systems utilize RNA-guided nucleases to protect bacteria from bacteriophage infection. Bacteriophages have in turn evolved inhibitory "anti-CRISPR" (Acr) proteins, including six inhibitors (AcrIIA1-AcrIIA6) that can block DNA cutting and genome editing by type II-A CRISPR-Cas9 enzymes. We show here that AcrIIA2 and its more potent homolog, AcrIIA2b, prevent Cas9 binding to DNA by occluding protein residues required for DNA binding. Cryo-EM-determined structures of AcrIIA2 or AcrIIA2b bound to S. pyogenes Cas9 reveal a mode of competitive inhibition of DNA binding that is distinct from other known Acrs. Differences in the temperature dependence of Cas9 inhibition by AcrIIA2 and AcrIIA2b arise from differences in both inhibitor structure and the local inhibitor-binding environment on Cas9. These findings expand the natural toolbox for regulating CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing temporally, spatially, and conditionally.

Solvent constraints for biopolymer folding and evolution in extraterrestrial environments.

We propose that spontaneous folding and molecular evolution of biopolymers are two universal aspects that must concur for life to happen. These aspects are fundamentally related to the chemical composition of biopolymers and crucially depend on the solvent in which they are embedded. We show that molecular information theory and energy landscape theory allow us to explore the limits that solvents impose on biopolymer existence. We consider 54 solvents, including water, alcohols, hydrocarbons, halogenated solvents, aromatic solvents, and low molecular weight substances made up of elements abundant in the universe, which may potentially take part in alternative biochemistries. We find that along with water, there are many solvents for which the liquid regime is compatible with biopolymer folding and evolution. We present a ranking of the solvents in terms of biopolymer compatibility. Many of these solvents have been found in molecular clouds or may be expected to occur in extrasolar planets.

The MKK3 MAPK cascade integrates temperature and after-ripening signals to modulate seed germination.

The timing of seed germination is controlled by the combination of internal dormancy and external factors. Temperature is a major environmental factor for seed germination. The permissive temperature range for germination is narrow in dormant seeds and expands during after-ripening (AR) (dormancy release). Quantitative trait loci analyses of preharvest sprouting in cereals have revealed that MKK3, a mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascade protein, is a negative regulator of grain dormancy. Here, we show that the MAPKKK19/20-MKK3-MPK1/2/7/14 cascade modulates the germination temperature range in Arabidopsis seeds by elevating the germinability of the seeds at sub- and supraoptimal temperatures. The expression of MAPKKK19 and MAPKKK20 is induced around optimal temperature for germination in after-ripened seeds but repressed in dormant seeds. MPK7 activation depends on the expression levels of MAPKKK19/20, with expression occurring under conditions permissive for germination. Abscisic acid (ABA) and gibberellin (GA) are two major phytohormones which are involved in germination control. Activation of the MKK3 cascade represses ABA biosynthesis enzyme gene expression and induces expression of ABA catabolic enzyme and GA biosynthesis enzyme genes, resulting in expansion of the germinable temperature range. Our data demonstrate that the MKK3 cascade integrates temperature and AR signals to phytohormone metabolism and seed germination.

Deep sequencing of Phox2a nuclei reveals five classes of anterolateral system neurons.

The anterolateral system (ALS) is a major ascending pathway from the spinal cord that projects to multiple brain areas and underlies the perception of pain, itch, and skin temperature. Despite its importance, our understanding of this system has been hampered by the considerable functional and molecular diversity of its constituent cells. Here, we use fluorescence-activated cell sorting to isolate ALS neurons belonging to the Phox2a-lineage for single-nucleus RNA sequencing. We reveal five distinct clusters of ALS neurons (ALS1-5) and document their laminar distribution in the spinal cord using in situ hybridization. We identify three clusters of neurons located predominantly in laminae I-III of the dorsal horn (ALS1-3) and two clusters with cell bodies located in deeper laminae (ALS4 and ALS5). Our findings reveal the transcriptional logic that underlies ALS neuronal diversity in the adult mouse and uncover the molecular identity of two previously identified classes of projection neurons. We also show that these molecular signatures can be used to target groups of ALS neurons using retrograde viral tracing. Overall, our findings provide a valuable resource for studying somatosensory biology and targeting subclasses of ALS neurons.

Bmal1 integrates circadian function and temperature sensing in the suprachiasmatic nucleus.

Circadian regulation and temperature dependency are important orchestrators of molecular pathways. How the integration between these two drivers is achieved, is not understood. We monitored circadian- and temperature-dependent effects on transcription dynamics of cold-response protein RNA Binding Motif 3 (Rbm3). Temperature changes in the mammalian master circadian pacemaker, the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), induced Rbm3 transcription and regulated its circadian periodicity, whereas the core clock gene Per2 was unaffected. Rbm3 induction depended on a full Brain And Muscle ARNT-Like Protein 1 (Bmal1) complement: reduced Bmal1 erased Rbm3 responses and weakened SCN circuit resilience to temperature changes. By focusing on circadian and temperature dependency, we highlight weakened transmission between core clock and downstream pathways as a potential route for reduced circadian resilience.

A redox switch allows binding of Fe(II) and Fe(III) ions in the cyanobacterial iron-binding protein FutA from Prochlorococcus.

The marine cyanobacterium Prochlorococcus is a main contributor to global photosynthesis, whilst being limited by iron availability. Cyanobacterial genomes generally encode two different types of FutA iron-binding proteins: periplasmic FutA2 ABC transporter subunits bind Fe(III), while cytosolic FutA1 binds Fe(II). Owing to their small size and their economized genome Prochlorococcus ecotypes typically possess a single futA gene. How the encoded FutA protein might bind different Fe oxidation states was previously unknown. Here, we use structural biology techniques at room temperature to probe the dynamic behavior of FutA. Neutron diffraction confirmed four negatively charged tyrosinates, that together with a neutral water molecule coordinate iron in trigonal bipyramidal geometry. Positioning of the positively charged Arg103 side chain in the second coordination shell yields an overall charge-neutral Fe(III) binding state in structures determined by neutron diffraction and serial femtosecond crystallography. Conventional rotation X-ray crystallography using a home source revealed X-ray-induced photoreduction of the iron center with observation of the Fe(II) binding state; here, an additional positioning of the Arg203 side chain in the second coordination shell maintained an overall charge neutral Fe(II) binding site. Dose series using serial synchrotron crystallography and an XFEL X-ray pump-probe approach capture the transition between Fe(III) and Fe(II) states, revealing how Arg203 operates as a switch to accommodate the different iron oxidation states. This switching ability of the Prochlorococcus FutA protein may reflect ecological adaptation by genome streamlining and loss of specialized FutA proteins.

Reconciling carbon quality with availability predicts temperature sensitivity of global soil carbon mineralization.

Soil organic carbon (SOC) mineralization is a key component of the global carbon cycle. Its temperature sensitivity Q10 (which is defined as the factor of change in mineralization with a 10 °C temperature increase) is crucial for understanding the carbon cycle-climate change feedback but remains uncertain. Here, we demonstrate the universal control of carbon quality-availability tradeoffs on Q10. When carbon availability is not limited, Q10 is controlled by carbon quality; otherwise, substrate availability controls Q10. A model driven by such quality-availability tradeoffs explains 97% of the spatiotemporal variability of Q10 in incubations of soils across the globe and predicts a global Q10 of 2.1 ± 0.4 (mean ± one SD) with higher Q10 in northern high-latitude regions. We further reveal that global Q10 is predominantly governed by the mineralization of high-quality carbon. The work provides a foundation for predicting SOC dynamics under climate and land use changes which may alter soil carbon quality and availability.

Temperature compensation through kinetic regulation in biochemical oscillators.

Nearly all circadian clocks maintain a period that is insensitive to temperature changes, a phenomenon known as temperature compensation (TC). Yet, it is unclear whether there is any common feature among different systems that exhibit TC. From a general timescale invariance, we show that TC relies on the existence of certain period-lengthening reactions wherein the period of the system increases strongly with the rates in these reactions. By studying several generic oscillator models, we show that this counterintuitive dependence is nonetheless a common feature of oscillators in the nonlinear (far-from-onset) regime where the oscillation can be separated into fast and slow phases. The increase of the period with the period-lengthening reaction rates occurs when the amplitude of the slow phase in the oscillation increases with these rates while the progression speed in the slow phase is controlled by other rates of the system. The positive dependence of the period on the period-lengthening rates balances its inverse dependence on other kinetic rates in the system, which gives rise to robust TC in a wide range of parameters. We demonstrate the existence of such period-lengthening reactions and their relevance for TC in all four model systems we considered. Theoretical results for a model of the Kai system are supported by experimental data. A study of the energy dissipation also shows that better TC performance requires higher energy consumption. Our study unveils a general mechanism by which a biochemical oscillator achieves TC by operating in parameter regimes far from the onset where period-lengthening reactions exist.

KCNQ1 is an essential mediator of the sex-dependent perception of moderate cold temperatures.

Low temperatures and cooling agents like menthol induce cold sensation by activating the peripheral cold receptors TRPM8 and TRPA1, cation channels belonging to the TRP channel family, while the reduction of potassium currents provides an additional and/or synergistic mechanism of cold sensation. Despite extensive studies over the past decades to identify the molecular receptors that mediate thermosensation, cold sensation is still not fully understood and many cold-sensitive peripheral neurons do not express the well-established cold sensor TRPM8. We found that the voltage-gated potassium channel KCNQ1 (Kv7.1), which is defective in cardiac LQT1 syndrome, is, in addition to its known function in the heart, a highly relevant and sex-specific sensor of moderately cold temperatures. We found that KCNQ1 is expressed in skin and dorsal root ganglion neurons, is sensitive to menthol and cooling agents, and is highly sensitive to moderately cold temperatures, in a temperature range at which TRPM8 is not thermosensitive. C-fiber recordings from KCNQ1-/- mice displayed altered action potential firing properties. Strikingly, only male KCNQ1-/- mice showed substantial deficits in cold avoidance at moderately cold temperatures, with a strength of the phenotype similar to that observed in TRPM8-/- animals. While sex-dependent differences in thermal sensitivity have been well documented in humans and mice, KCNQ1 is the first gene reported to play a role in sex-specific temperature sensation. Moreover, we propose that KCNQ1, together with TRPM8, is a key instrumentalist that orchestrates the range and intensity of cold sensation.