Structure and dynamics of microbial communities associated with the resurrection plant Boea hygrometrica in response to drought stress.

MAIN CONCLUSION: The resurrection plant Boea hygrometrica selectively recruits and assembles drought-specific microbial communities across the plant-soil compartments, which may benefit plant growth and fitness under extreme drought conditions. Plant-associated microbes are essential for facilitating plant growth and fitness under drought stress. The resurrection plant Boea hygrometrica in natural habitats with seasonal rainfall can survive rapid desiccation, yet their interaction with microbiomes under drought conditions remains unexplored. This study examined the bacterial and fungal microbiome structure and drought response across plant-soil compartments of B. hygrometrica by high-throughput amplicon sequencing of 16S rRNA gene and internal transcribed spacer. Our results demonstrated that the diversity, composition, and functional profile of the microbial community varied considerably across the plant-soil compartments and were strongly affected by drought stress. Bacterial and fungal diversity was significantly reduced from soil to endosphere and belowground to aboveground compartments. The compartment-specific enrichment of the dominant bacteria phylum Cyanobacteriota and genus Methylorubrum in leaf endosphere, genera Pseudonocardia in rhizosphere soil and Actinoplanes in root endosphere, and fungal phylum Ascomycota in the aboveground compartments and genera Knufia in root endosphere and Cladosporium in leaf endosphere composed part of the core microbiota with corresponding enrichment of beneficial functions for plant growth and fitness. Moreover, the recruitment of dominant microbial genera Sphingosinicella and Plectosphaerella, Ceratobasidiaceae mycorrhizal fungi, and numerous plant growth-promoting bacteria involving nutrient supply and auxin regulation was observed in desiccated B. hygrometrica plants. Our results suggest that the stable assembled drought-specific microbial community of B. hygrometrica may contribute to plant survival under extreme environments and provide valuable microbial resources for the microbe-mediated drought tolerance enhancement in crops.

Development of Specific Primers for Fusarium oxysporum Formae Speciales rapae and matthiolae with an Integrated Multiplex PCR for Distinguishing Four Formae Speciales on Brassicaceae.

There are four formae speciales of Fusarium oxysporum responsible for causing yellows of Brassicaceae. Because of crossbreeding among crops, the host ranges of these formae speciales often overlap, making pathogen identification a challenging task. Among these formae speciales, F. oxysporum f. sp. rapae and F. oxysporum f. sp. matthiolae still lack specific primers for pathogen identification. To address this problem, we targeted the secreted in xylem (SIX) genes, known as specific effectors of pathogenic F. oxysporum, for primer design. Through sequence comparison with other formae speciales, we successfully designed specific primers for F. oxysporum f. sp. rapae and F. oxysporum f. sp. matthiolae on SIX14 and SIX9, respectively. Both primer pairs exhibited high specificity in detecting F. oxysporum f. sp. rapae or F. oxysporum f. sp. matthiolae, distinguishing them from 20 nontarget formae speciales of F. oxysporum, five species of phytopathogenic Fusarium, and four other common pathogenic fungi affecting cruciferous plants. Moreover, the effectiveness of these specific primers was validated by detecting the pathogens in infected plants. To further enhance the identification process of the four formae speciales, we combined the two newly designed specific primer pairs with two previously published primer pairs, enabling the establishment of a multiplex PCR method that can accurately distinguish all four formae speciales of F. oxysporum responsible for causing yellows in cruciferous plants in a single reaction.

Characterization of Emerging Xanthomonas campestris Isolates on the Nonnative Weed Garlic Mustard (Alliaria petiolata).

Nonnative plant infestations provide unique opportunities to investigate pathogen emergence with evolutionarily recent plant introduction events. The widespread distribution of invasive plants and their proximity to genetically related crops highlights the risks of nonnative plants acting as ancillary hosts and fostering microbial recombination and pathogen selection. Garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata) is a widespread, nonnative cruciferous weed that grows throughout North America and along the forested edges of diverse agricultural fields. The recent identification of a novel Xanthomonas campestris pv. incanae strain isolated from a diseased A. petiolata population led to the current investigation of the distribution and diversity of X. campestris isolates from naturally infected A. petiolata. A total of 14 diseased A. petiolata sites were sampled across three states, leading to the identification of diverse X. campestris pathotypes and genotypes. Pathogenicity assays and multilocus sequence analyses identified pathogenic X. c. pv. incanae and X. c. pv. barbareae strains collected from disparate A. petiolata populations. Moreover, independently collected X. c. pv. incanae strains demonstrated a broad cruciferous host range by infecting cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata), garden stock (Matthiola incana), and the cover crop yellow mustard (Guillenia flavescens). This study highlights the genetic variability and host potential of natural X. campestris populations and the potential risks to Brassica crops via widespread, dense garlic mustard reservoirs.

Metapopulation Structure Predicts Population Dynamics in the Cakile maritima-Alternaria brassicicola Host-Pathogen Interaction.

AbstractIn symbiotic interactions, spatiotemporal variation in the distribution or population dynamics of one species represents spatial and temporal heterogeneity of the landscape for the other. Such interdependent demographic dynamics result in situations where the relative importance of biotic and abiotic factors in determining ecological processes is complicated to decipher. Using a detailed survey of three metapopulations of the succulent plant Cakile maritima and the necrotrophic fungus Alternaria brassicicola located along the southeastern Australian coast, we developed a series of statistical analyses-namely, synchrony analysis, patch occupancy dynamics, and a spatially explicit metapopulation model-to understand how habitat quality, weather conditions, dispersal, and spatial structure determine metapopulation dynamics. Climatic conditions are important drivers, likely explaining the high synchrony among populations. Host availability, landscape features facilitating dispersal, and habitat conditions also impact the occurrence and spread of disease. Overall, we show that the collection of extensive data on host and pathogen population dynamics, in combination with spatially explicit epidemiological modeling, makes it possible to accurately predict disease dynamics-even when there is extreme variability in host population dynamics. Finally, we discuss the importance of genetic information for predicting demographic dynamics in this pathosystem.

Design of synthetic bacterial communities for predictable plant phenotypes.

Specific members of complex microbiota can influence host phenotypes, depending on both the abiotic environment and the presence of other microorganisms. Therefore, it is challenging to define bacterial combinations that have predictable host phenotypic outputs. We demonstrate that plant-bacterium binary-association assays inform the design of small synthetic communities with predictable phenotypes in the host. Specifically, we constructed synthetic communities that modified phosphate accumulation in the shoot and induced phosphate starvation-responsive genes in a predictable fashion. We found that bacterial colonization of the plant is not a predictor of the plant phenotypes we analyzed. Finally, we demonstrated that characterizing a subset of all possible bacterial synthetic communities is sufficient to predict the outcome of untested bacterial consortia. Our results demonstrate that it is possible to infer causal relationships between microbiota membership and host phenotypes and to use these inferences to rationally design novel communities.

Commercial wash of leafy vegetables do not significantly decrease bacterial load but leads to shifts in bacterial species composition.

Production of leafy vegetables for the "Ready-to-eat"-market has vastly increased the last 20 years, and consumption of these minimally processed vegetables has led to outbreaks of food-borne diseases. Contamination of leafy vegetables can occur throughout the production chain, and therefore washing of the produce has become a standard in commercial processing. This study explores the bacterial communities of spinach (Spinacia oleracea) and rocket (Diplotaxis tenuifolia) in a commercial setting in order to identify potential contamination events, and to investigate effects on bacterial load by commercial processing. Samples were taken in field, after washing of the produce and at the end of shelf-life. This study found that the bacterial community composition and diversity changed significantly from the first harvest to the end of shelf-life, where the core microbiome from the first to the last sampling constituted <2% of all OTUs. While washing of the produce had no reducing effect on bacterial load compared to unwashed, washing led to a change in species composition. As the leaves entered the cold chain after harvest, a rise was seen in the relative abundance of spoilage bacteria. E. coli was detected after the washing indicating issues of cross-contamination in the wash water.

Genome-wide identification and characterization of Chitinase gene family in Brassica juncea and Camelina sativa in response to Alternaria brassicae.

Chitinases belong to the group of Pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins that provides protection against fungal pathogens. This study presents the, genome-wide identification and characterization of chitinase gene family in two important oilseed crops B. juncea and C. sativa belonging to family Brassicaceae. We have identified 47 and 79 chitinase genes in the genomes of B. juncea and C. sativa, respectively. Phylogenetic analysis of chitinases in both the species revealed four distinct sub-groups, representing different classes of chitinases (I-V). Microscopic and biochemical study reveals the role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging enzymes in disease resistance of B. juncea and C. sativa. Furthermore, qRT-PCR analysis showed that expression of chitinases in both B. juncea and C. sativa was significantly induced after Alternaria brassicae infection. However, the fold change in chitinase gene expression was considerably higher in C. sativa compared to B. juncea, which further proves their role in C. sativa disease resistance to A. brassicae. This study provides comprehensive analysis on chitinase gene family in B. juncea and C. sativa and in future may serve as a potential candidate for improving disease resistance in B. juncea through transgenic approach.

Genome Sequence of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. matthiolae, a Brassicaceae Pathogen.

The filamentous fungus Fusarium oxysporum is a soilborne pathogen of many cultivated species and an opportunistic pathogen of humans. F. oxysporum f. sp. matthiolae is one of three formae speciales that are pathogenic to crucifers, including Arabidopsis thaliana, a premier model for plant molecular biology and genetics. Here, we report a genome assembly of F. oxysporum f. sp. matthiolae strain PHW726, generated using a combination of PacBio and Illumina sequencing technologies. The genome assembly presented here should facilitate in-depth investigation of F. oxysporum-Arabidopsis interactions and shed light on the genetics of fungal pathogenesis and plant immunity.

The Brassicaceae-specific secreted peptides, STMPs, function in plant growth and pathogen defense.

Low molecular weight secreted peptides have recently been shown to affect multiple aspects of plant growth, development, and defense responses. Here, we performed stepwise BLAST filtering to identify unannotated peptides from the Arabidopsis thaliana protein database and uncovered a novel secreted peptide family, secreted transmembrane peptides (STMPs). These low molecular weight peptides, which consist of an N-terminal signal peptide and a transmembrane domain, were primarily localized to extracellular compartments but were also detected in the endomembrane system of the secretory pathway, including the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi. Comprehensive bioinformatics analysis identified 10 STMP family members that are specific to the Brassicaceae family. Brassicaceae plants showed dramatically inhibited root growth upon exposure to chemically synthesized STMP1 and STMP2. Arabidopsis overexpressing STMP1, 2, 4, 6, or 10 exhibited severely arrested growth, suggesting that STMPs are involved in regulating plant growth and development. In addition, in vitro bioassays demonstrated that STMP1, STMP2, and STMP10 have antibacterial effects against Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato DC3000, Ralstonia solanacearum, Bacillus subtilis, and Agrobacterium tumefaciens, demonstrating that STMPs are antimicrobial peptides. These findings suggest that STMP family members play important roles in various developmental events and pathogen defense responses in Brassicaceae plants.

The Plant Host Induces Antibiotic Production To Select the Most-Beneficial Colonizers.

Microbial ecosystems tightly associated with a eukaryotic host are widespread in nature. The genetic and metabolic networks of the eukaryotic hosts and the associated microbes have coevolved to form a symbiotic relationship. Both the Gram-positive Bacillus subtilis and the Gram-negative Serratia plymuthica can form biofilms on plant roots and thus can serve as a model system for the study of interspecies interactions in a host-associated ecosystem. We found that B. subtilis biofilms expand collectively and asymmetrically toward S. plymuthica, while expressing a nonribosomal antibiotic bacillaene and an extracellular protease. As a result, B. subtilis biofilms outcompeted S. plymuthica for successful colonization of the host. Strikingly, the plant host was able to enhance the efficiency of this killing by inducing bacillaene synthesis. In turn, B. subtilis biofilms increased the resistance of the plant host to pathogens. These results provide an example of how plant-bacterium symbiosis promotes the immune response of the plant host and the fitness of the associated bacteria.IMPORTANCE Our study sheds mechanistic light on how multicellular biofilm units compete to successfully colonize a eukaryote host, using B. subtilis microbial communities as our lens. The microbiota and its interactions with its host play various roles in the development and prevention of diseases. Using competing beneficial biofilms that are essential microbiota members on the plant host, we found that B. subtilis biofilms activate collective migration to capture their prey, followed by nonribosomal antibiotic synthesis. Plant hosts increase the efficiency of antibiotic production by B. subtilis biofilms, as they activate the synthesis of polyketides; therefore, our study provides evidence of a mechanism by which the host can indirectly select for beneficial microbiota members.

Albugo candida race diversity, ploidy and host-associated microbes revealed using DNA sequence capture on diseased plants in the field.

Physiological races of the oomycete Albugo candida are biotrophic pathogens of diverse plant species, primarily the Brassicaceae, and cause infections that suppress host immunity to other pathogens. However, A. candida race diversity and the consequences of host immunosuppression are poorly understood in the field. We report a method that enables sequencing of DNA of plant pathogens and plant-associated microbes directly from field samples (Pathogen Enrichment Sequencing: PenSeq). We apply this method to explore race diversity in A. candida and to detect A. candida-associated microbes in the field (91 A. candida-infected plants). We show with unprecedented resolution that each host plant species supports colonization by one of 17 distinct phylogenetic lineages, each with an unique repertoire of effector candidate alleles. These data reveal the crucial role of sexual and asexual reproduction, polyploidy and host domestication in A. candida specialization on distinct plant species. Our bait design also enabled phylogenetic assignment of DNA sequences from bacteria and fungi from plants in the field. This paper shows that targeted sequencing has a great potential for the study of pathogen populations while they are colonizing their hosts. This method could be applied to other microbes, especially to those that cannot be cultured.

Smut infection of perennial hosts: the genome and the transcriptome of the Brassicaceae smut fungus Thecaphora thlaspeos reveal functionally conserved and novel effectors.

Biotrophic fungal plant pathogens can balance their virulence and form intricate relationships with their hosts. Sometimes, this leads to systemic host colonization over long time scales without macroscopic symptoms. However, how plant-pathogenic endophytes manage to establish their sustained systemic infection remains largely unknown. Here, we present a genomic and transcriptomic analysis of Thecaphora thlaspeos. This relative of the well studied grass smut Ustilago maydis is the only smut fungus adapted to Brassicaceae hosts. Its ability to overwinter with perennial hosts and its systemic plant infection including roots are unique characteristics among smut fungi. The T. thlaspeos genome was assembled to the chromosome level. It is a typical smut genome in terms of size and genome characteristics. In silico prediction of candidate effector genes revealed common smut effector proteins and unique members. For three candidates, we have functionally demonstrated effector activity. One of these, TtTue1, suggests a potential link to cold acclimation. On the plant side, we found evidence for a typical immune response as it is present in other infection systems, despite the absence of any macroscopic symptoms during infection. Our findings suggest that T. thlaspeos distinctly balances its virulence during biotrophic growth ultimately allowing for long-lived infection of its perennial hosts.

The effect of rhizosphere microbes outweighs host plant genetics in reducing insect herbivory.

Rhizosphere microbes affect plant performance, including plant resistance against insect herbivores; yet, a direct comparison of the relative influence of rhizosphere microbes versus plant genetics on herbivory levels and on metabolites related to defence is lacking. In the crucifer Boechera stricta, we tested the effects of rhizosphere microbes and plant population on herbivore resistance, the primary metabolome, and select secondary metabolites. Plant populations differed significantly in the concentrations of six glucosinolates (GLS), secondary metabolites known to provide herbivore resistance in the Brassicaceae. The population with lower GLS levels experienced ~60% higher levels of aphid (Myzus persicae) attack; no association was observed between GLS and damage by a second herbivore, flea beetles (Phyllotreta cruciferae). Rhizosphere microbiome (disrupted vs. intact native microbiome) had no effect on plant GLS concentrations. However, aphid number and flea beetle damage were respectively about three- and seven-fold higher among plants grown in the disrupted versus intact native microbiome treatment. These differences may be attributable to shifts in primary metabolic pathways previously implicated in host defence against herbivores, including increases in pentose and glucoronate interconversion among plants grown with an intact microbiome. Furthermore, native microbiomes with distinct community composition (as estimated from 16s rRNA amplicon sequencing) differed two-fold in their effect on host plant susceptibility to aphids. The findings suggest that rhizosphere microbes, including distinct native microbiomes, can play a greater role than population in defence against insect herbivores, and act through metabolic mechanisms independent of population.

Interaction of Brassicaceae Seed Meal Soil Amendment and Apple Rootstock Genotype on Microbiome Structure and Replant Disease Suppression.

Preplant soil application of a Brassica juncea-Sinapis alba seed meal formulation (SM) at a rate of 6.6 t ha-1 alters composition of the orchard soil microbiome in a manner that yields sustainable long-term suppression of soilborne pathogens in apple production systems. However, the cost of SM amendment has hindered the adoption of this tactic to manage apple replant disease in commercial orchards. Greenhouse trials were conducted to assess the effect of reduced SM application rates in concert with apple rootstock genotype on structure of the rhizosphere microbiome and associated disease control outcomes. At all application rates assessed, SM treatment increased tree growth and reduced disease development relative to the control. In general, total tree biomass and leader shoot length were similar in soils treated with SM at 4.4 or 6.6 t ha-1 regardless of rootstock genotype. Equivalent increase in tree biomass when cultivated in soil treated at the lowest and highest SM amendment rate was attained when used in conjunction with G.41 or G.210 apple rootstocks. Suppression of Pythium spp. or Pratylenchus penetrans root densities was similar at all SM application rates. When cultivated in nontreated replant orchard soil, Geneva rootstocks (G.41 and G.210) exhibited lower levels of Pythium spp. and P. penetrans root colonization relative to Malling rootstocks (M.9 and MM.106). For a given rootstock, structure of the rhizosphere microbiome was similar in soils treated with SM at 4.4 and 6.6 t ha-1. G.41 and G.210 rootstocks but not M.9 or MM.106 cultivated in soil treated with SM at 2.2 t ha-1 possessed a rhizosphere bacterial community structure that differed significantly from the control. Findings indicate that effective control of apple replant disease may be attained at lower SM amendment rates than employed previously, with lower effective rates possible when integrated with tolerant rootstock genotypes such as G.41 or G.210.

Root nodule symbiosis in Lotus japonicus drives the establishment of distinctive rhizosphere, root, and nodule bacterial communities.

Lotus japonicus has been used for decades as a model legume to study the establishment of binary symbiotic relationships with nitrogen-fixing rhizobia that trigger root nodule organogenesis for bacterial accommodation. Using community profiling of 16S rRNA gene amplicons, we reveal that in Lotus, distinctive nodule- and root-inhabiting communities are established by parallel, rather than consecutive, selection of bacteria from the rhizosphere and root compartments. Comparative analyses of wild-type (WT) and symbiotic mutants in Nod factor receptor5 (nfr5), Nodule inception (nin) and Lotus histidine kinase1 (lhk1) genes identified a previously unsuspected role of the nodulation pathway in the establishment of different bacterial assemblages in the root and rhizosphere. We found that the loss of nitrogen-fixing symbiosis dramatically alters community structure in the latter two compartments, affecting at least 14 bacterial orders. The differential plant growth phenotypes seen between WT and the symbiotic mutants in nonsupplemented soil were retained under nitrogen-supplemented conditions that blocked the formation of functional nodules in WT, whereas the symbiosis-impaired mutants maintain an altered community structure in the nitrogen-supplemented soil. This finding provides strong evidence that the root-associated community shift in the symbiotic mutants is a direct consequence of the disabled symbiosis pathway rather than an indirect effect resulting from abolished symbiotic nitrogen fixation. Our findings imply a role of the legume host in selecting a broad taxonomic range of root-associated bacteria that, in addition to rhizobia, likely contribute to plant growth and ecological performance.

Comparative Reaction of Camelina sativa to Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and Leptosphaeria maculans.

Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and Leptosphaeria maculans are two of the most important pathogens of many cruciferous crops. The reaction of 30 genotypes of Camelina sativa (false flax) was determined against both pathogens. C. sativa genotypes were inoculated at seedling and adult stages with two pathotypes of S. sclerotiorum, highly virulent MBRS-1 and less virulent WW-1. There were significant differences (P < 0.001) among genotypes, between pathotypes, and a significant interaction between genotypes and pathotypes in relation to percent cotyledon disease index (% CDI) and stem lesion length. Genotypes 370 (% CDI 20.5, stem lesion length 1.8 cm) and 253 (% CDI 24.8, stem lesion length 1.4 cm) not only consistently exhibited cotyledon and stem resistance, in contrast to susceptible genotype 2305 (% CDI 37.7, stem lesion length 7.2 cm), but their resistance was independent to S. sclerotiorum pathotype. A F5-recombinant inbred line population was developed from genotypes 370 × 2305 and responses characterized. Low broad-sense heritability indicated a complex pattern of inheritance of resistance to S. sclerotiorum. Six isolates of L. maculans, covering combinations of five different avirulent loci (i.e., five different races), were tested on C. sativa cotyledons across two experiments. There was a high level of resistance, with % CDI < 17, and including development of a hypersensitive reaction. This is the first report of variable reaction of C. sativa to different races of L. maculans and the first demonstrating comparative reactions of C. sativa to S. sclerotiorum and L. maculans. This study not only provides new understanding of these comparative resistances in C. sativa, but highlights their potential as new sources of resistance, both for crucifer disease-resistance breeding in general and to enable broader adoption of C. sativa as a more sustainable oilseed crop in its own right.

Mucor sp.-An endophyte of Brassicaceae capable of surviving in toxic metal-rich sites.

The aim of this study was to assess the biodiversity of endophytic fungi from Arabidopsis arenosa growing on a post mining waste dump and to evaluate their role in plant adaptation to metal toxicity. Severeal of the fungi were beneficial for the plant. Among them, a fungus belonging to the Mucor genus, was found to interact with a broad range of plants, including Brassicaceae metallophytes. Mucor sp. was shown to be highly tolerant to elevated levels of Zn, Cd, and Pb and to accelerate plant-host growth under either toxic-metal stress or control conditions. When inoculated with Mucor sp., A. arenosa under toxic-metal stress acquired more N and showed significantly down-regulated catalase activity, which suggests suppression of toxic-metal-induced oxidative stress. We used the model plant-A. thaliana to evaluate the dynamics of plant-tissue colonization by the fungus as monitored with qPCR and to analyze the host's transcriptome response during early stages of the interaction. The results revealed the induction of a plant-defense and stress-related response on the 5th day of co-culture, which was in accord with the decrease of fungal abundance in shoots on the 6th day of interaction. Presented results demonstrate the importance of endophytic fungi in plant toxic-metal tolerance.

Rhizosphere-associated Pseudomonas induce systemic resistance to herbivores at the cost of susceptibility to bacterial pathogens.

Plant-associated soil microbes are important mediators of plant defence responses to diverse above-ground pathogen and insect challengers. For example, closely related strains of beneficial rhizosphere Pseudomonas spp. can induce systemic resistance (ISR), systemic susceptibility (ISS) or neither against the bacterial foliar pathogen Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato DC3000 (Pto DC3000). Using a model system composed of root-associated Pseudomonas spp. strains, the foliar pathogen Pto DC3000 and the herbivore Trichoplusia ni (cabbage looper), we found that rhizosphere-associated Pseudomonas spp. that induce either ISS and ISR against Pto DC3000 all increased resistance to herbivory by T. ni. We found that resistance to T. ni and resistance to Pto DC3000 are quantitative metrics of the jasmonic acid (JA)/salicylic acid (SA) trade-off and distinct strains of rhizosphere-associated Pseudomonas spp. have distinct effects on the JA/SA trade-off. Using genetic analysis and transcriptional profiling, we provide evidence that treatment of Arabidopsis with Pseudomonas sp. CH267, which induces ISS against bacterial pathogens, tips the JA/SA trade-off towards JA-dependent defences against herbivores at the cost of a subset of SA-mediated defences against bacterial pathogens. In contrast, treatment of Arabidopsis with the ISR strain Pseudomonas sp. WCS417 disrupts JA/SA antagonism and simultaneously primes plants for both JA- and SA-mediated defences. Our findings show that ISS against the bacterial foliar pathogens triggered by Pseudomonas sp. CH267, which is a seemingly deleterious phenotype, may in fact be an adaptive consequence of increased resistance to herbivory. Our work shows that pleiotropic effects of microbiome modulation of plant defences are important to consider when using microbes to modify plant traits in agriculture.

Actinomycetes: an unexplored microorganisms for plant growth promotion and biocontrol in vegetable crops.

Actinomycetes, a Gram positive bacteria, well reported as a source of antibiotics, also possess potential to control various plant pathogens, besides acting as plant growth promoting agent. Chemicals in different forms are extensively being used in vegetable farming, adversely affecting the environment and consumer health. Microbial agent like actinomycetes can substantially replace these harmful chemicals, and have now started finding a place as an important input in to farming practices. Only selected vegetable crops belonging to 11 different families have been explored with use of actinomycetes as biocontrol and plant growth promoting agent till now. It provides ample opportunities to vegetable researchers, to further explore with use of this very important group of microorganisms, in order to achieve even higher production level of safe vegetables. Mycostop and Actinovate are two actinomycetes based formulations globally available for use in vegetable farming as a substitute for chemical formulations. Present review article has summarized the literature available on use of actinomycetes in vegetable farming. Existing wide gap in knowledge, and potential thrust areas for future research have also been projected.

The Plant-Dependent Life Cycle of Thecaphora thlaspeos: A Smut Fungus Adapted to Brassicaceae.

Smut fungi are globally distributed plant pathogens that infect agriculturally important crop plants such as maize or potato. To date, molecular studies on plant responses to smut fungi are challenging due to the genetic complexity of their host plants. Therefore, we set out to investigate the known smut fungus of Brassicaceae hosts, Thecaphora thlaspeos. T. thlaspeos infects different Brassicaceae plant species throughout Europe, including the perennial model plant Arabis alpina. In contrast to characterized smut fungi, mature and dry T. thlaspeos teliospores germinated only in the presence of a plant signal. An infectious filament emerges from the teliospore, which can proliferate as haploid filamentous cultures. Haploid filaments from opposite mating types mate, similar to sporidia of the model smut fungus Ustilago maydis. Consistently, the a and b mating locus genes are conserved. Infectious filaments can penetrate roots and aerial tissues of host plants, causing systemic colonization along the vasculature. Notably, we could show that T. thlaspeos also infects Arabidopsis thaliana. Exploiting the genetic resources of A. thaliana and Arabis alpina will allow us to characterize plant responses to smut infection in a comparative manner and, thereby, characterize factors for endophytic growth as well as smut fungi virulence in dicot plants.