Echocardiography findings in amniotic fluid embolism: a systematic review of the literature.

PURPOSE: Amniotic fluid embolism (AFE) is a leading cause of obstetrical cardiac arrest and maternal morbidity. The pathogenesis of hemodynamic collapse is thought to be from right ventricular (RV) failure; however, there is a paucity of data documenting echocardiography findings in this population. We undertook a systematic review of the literature to evaluate the echocardiography findings in patients with AFE. SOURCES: We retrieved all case reports and case series reporting AFE in Embase and MEDLINE from inception to 20 November 2021. Studies reporting AFE diagnosed by fulfilling at least one of three different proposed AFE criteria and echocardiography findings during hospitalization were included. Patient and echocardiographic data were retrieved, and univariate logistic regression analysis was performed for outcomes of interest. Bias was assessed using the Joanna Briggs Institute clinical appraisal tool for case series. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Eighty publications reporting on 84 patients were included in the final review. Fifty-five out of 82 patients with data (67%) showed RV dysfunction, including 11/82 (13%) with biventricular dysfunction; 14/82 (17%) had normal systolic function. No data on RV or left ventricular function were reported for two patients. The presence of RV dysfunction on echocardiography was associated with cardiac arrest (odds ratio [OR], 3.66; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.39 to 9.67; P = 0.009), and a composite risk of cardiac arrest, maternal death or use of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (OR, 3.86; 95% CI, 1.43 to 10.4; P = 0.007). A low risk of bias was observed in 15/84 (18%) cases. CONCLUSIONS: Right ventricular dysfunction on echocardiography is a common finding in AFE and is associated with a high risk of cardiac arrest. The finding of RV dysfunction on echocardiography may help diagnose AFE and help triage the highest risk patients with AFE. STUDY REGISTRATION: PROSPERO (CRD42021271323); registered 1 September 2021.

RéSUMé: OBJECTIF: L'embolie amniotique (EA) est l'une des principales causes d'arrêt cardiaque obstétrical et de morbidité maternelle. Il est présumé que la pathogenèse du choc hémodynamique provient d'une défaillance ventriculaire droite (VD). Cependant, il y a peu de données documentant les constatations de l'examen échocardiographique dans cette population. Nous avons effectué une revue systématique des données probantes visant à évaluer l'utilité de l'échocardiographie chez les patientes atteintes d'embolie amniotique. SOURCES: Nous avons évalué tous les rapports de cas et séries de cas rapportant une EA dans les bases de données Embase et MEDLINE de leur création jusqu'au 20 novembre 2021. Les études rapportant une EA diagnostiquée en remplissant au moins l'un des trois critères d'EA proposés et les résultats échocardiographiques pendant l'hospitalisation ont été incluses. Les données sur les patientes et échocardiographiques ont été colligées, et une analyse de régression logistique univariée a été effectuée pour les issues cliniques d'intérêt. Le risque de biais a été évalué à l'aide de l'outil d'évaluation clinique de l'Institut Joanna Briggs pour les séries de cas. CONSTATATIONS PRINCIPALES: Quatre-vingts publications incluant 84 patientes ont été incluses dans la revue finale. Cinquante-cinq des 82 patientes présentant des données (67 %) avaient une dysfonction du VD incluant 11/82 (13 %) avec une dysfonction biventriculaire. Quatorze patientes sur 82 (17 %) avaient une fonction systolique normale. Aucune donnée sur la fonction du ventricule droit ou gauche n'a été rapportée pour deux patientes. La présence d'une dysfonction du VD à l'échocardiographie était associée à un arrêt cardiaque (rapport de cotes [RC], 3,66; intervalle de confiance à 95 % [IC], 1,39 à 9,67; P = 0,009), et à un risque composite d'arrêt cardiaque, de décès maternel ou d'utilisation de l'oxygénation par membrane extracorporelle (ECMO) (RC, 3,86; IC 95 %, 1,43 à 10,4; P = 0,007). Un faible risque de biais a été observé dans 15/84 (18 %) des cas. CONCLUSION: La dysfonction ventriculaire droite à l'échocardiographie est une constatation courante dans l'embolie amniotique et est associée à un risque élevé d'arrêt cardiaque. La découverte d'une dysfonction du VD à l'échocardiographie peut aider à diagnostiquer l'embolie amniotique et à identifier les patientes atteintes d'embolie amniotique les plus à risque. ENREGISTREMENT DE L'éTUD: PROSPERO (CRD42021271323); enregistrée le 1er septembre 2021.

Placental mesenchymal dysplasia complicated with sudden fetal demise and amniotic fluid embolism: a case report.

BACKGROUND: Placenta mesenchymal dysplasia (PMD) is a rare placental anomaly associated with various fetal and maternal complications. Whether close ultrasound surveillance can prevent intrauterine fetal demise (IUFD) in patients with PMD is still under investigation. Amniotic fluid embolism (AFE) is a rare, lethal, and unpredictable maternal complication that has never been described in association with PMD. Here, we report a case of PMD, in which the fetus eventually demised in utero despite weekly color Doppler monitoring, and the mother subsequently encountered AFE during delivery. CASE PRESENTATION: A 43-year-old woman who had received three frozen embryo transfer, was found to have a singleton pregnancy with an enlarged multi-cystic placenta at 8 weeks' gestation. Fetal growth restriction (FGR) was noted since the 21stweek. The fetus eventually demised in-utero at 25 weeks despite weekly color Doppler surveillance. Cesarean section was performed under general anesthesia due to placenta previa totalis and antepartum hemorrhage. During surgery, the patient experienced a sudden blood pressure drop and desaturation followed by profound coagulopathy. AFE was suspected. After administration of inotropic agents and massive blood transfusion, the patient eventually survived AFE. PMD was confirmed after pathological examination of the placenta. CONCLUSIONS: While FGR can be monitored by color Doppler, our case echoed previous reports that IUFD may be unpreventable even under intensive surveillance in PMD cases. Although AFE is usually considered unpredictable, PMD can result in cumulative risk factors contributing to AFE. Whether a specific link exists between the pathophysiology of PMD and AFE requires further investigation.

The role of echocardiography in amniotic fluid embolism: a case series and review of the literature.

PURPOSE: Amniotic fluid embolism (AFE) is a rare, but often fatal condition characterized by sudden hemodynamic instability and coagulopathy occurring during labour or in the early postpartum period. As the mechanisms leading to shock and the cardiovascular effects of AFE are incompletely understood, the purpose of this case series is to describe how AFE presents on echocardiography and review limited reports in the literature. CLINICAL FEATURES: We describe three cases of AFE at the Jewish General Hospital, a tertiary care centre in Montreal, Canada. All cases met the Clark diagnostic criteria, which comprise 1) sudden cardiorespiratory arrest or both hypotension and respiratory compromise, 2) disseminated intravascular coagulation, 3) clinical onset during labour or within 30 min of delivery of the placenta, and 4) absence of fever. Two patients had a cardiac arrest and the third developed significant hypotension and hypoxia. In all patients, point-of-care echocardiography at the time of shock revealed signs of right ventricular failure including a D-shaped septum, acute pulmonary hypertension, and right ventricular systolic dysfunction. CONCLUSION: This case series and literature review of AFE emphasizes the importance of echocardiography in elucidating the etiology of maternal shock. The presence of right ventricular failure may be considered an important criterion to diagnose AFE.

RéSUMé: OBJECTIF: L'embolie de liquide amniotique (ELA) est une complication rare mais souvent fatale caractérisée par une instabilité hémodynamique et une coagulopathie soudaines survenant pendant le travail obstétrical ou au début de la période postpartum. Étant donné que les mécanismes menant au choc et les effets cardiovasculaires de l'ELA ne sont que partiellement compris, le but de cette série de cas était de décrire comment l'ELA apparaît à l'échocardiographie et de passer en revue les rares comptes rendus dans la littérature. CARACTéRISTIQUES CLINIQUES: Nous décrivons trois cas d'ELA survenus à l'Hôpital général juif, un centre tertiaire de soins à Montréal, au Canada. Tous les cas remplissaient les critères diagnostiques de Clark, qui comportent 1) un arrêt cardiorespiratoire soudain ou une hypotension accompagnée d'une détresse respiratoire, 2) une coagulation intravasculaire disséminée, 3) une apparition clinique pendant le travail obstétrical ou dans un délai de 30 minutes suivant la délivrance du placenta, et 4) l'absence de fièvre. Deux patientes ont subi un arrêt cardiaque et le tiers des patientes ont manifesté une hypotension et une hypoxie significatives. Chez toutes les patientes, l'échocardiographie au chevet au moment du choc a révélé des signes d'insuffisance ventriculaire droite, y compris un septum en forme de D, une hypertension pulmonaire aiguë et une dysfonction systolique ventriculaire droite. CONCLUSION: Cette série de cas et revue de littérature de l'ELA souligne l'importance de l'échocardiographie pour élucider l'étiologie du choc maternel. La présence d'une insuffisance ventriculaire droite peut être considérée un critère important pour diagnostiquer une ELA.

Amniotic fluid embolism: principles of early clinical management.

Amniotic fluid embolism is an uncommon, but potentially lethal, complication of pregnancy. Because amniotic fluid embolism usually is seen with cardiac arrest, the initial immediate response should be to provide high-quality cardiopulmonary resuscitation. We describe key features of initial treatment of patients with amniotic fluid embolism. Where available, we recommend performing transthoracic or transesophageal echocardiography as soon as possible because this is an easy and reliable method of identifying a failing right ventricle. If such failure is identified, treatment that is tailored at improving right ventricular performance should be initiated with the use of inotropic agents and pulmonary vasodilators. Blood pressure support with vasopressors is preferred over fluid infusion in the setting of severe right ventricular compromise. Amniotic fluid embolism-related coagulopathy should be managed with hemostatic resuscitation with the use of a 1:1:1 ratio of packed red cells, fresh frozen plasma, and platelets (with cryoprecipitate as needed to maintain a serum fibrinogen of >150-200 mg/dL). In cases that require prolonged cardiopulmonary resuscitation or, after arrest, severe ventricular dysfunction refractory to medical management, consideration for venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation should be given.

Case report of amniotic fluid embolism coagulopathy following abortion; use of viscoelastic point-of-care analysis.

BACKGROUND: Amniotic fluid embolism (AFE) is a rare, life threatening obstetric complication, often associated with severe coagulopathy. Induced abortions are extremely safe procedures however complications including AFE can occur. CASE PRESENTATION: A 29-year-old previously healthy woman, gravida 1 para 0, presented for a scheduled second trimester induced abortion via dilation and evacuation at 22-weeks gestation. The case was complicated by a suspected AFE with associated profound coagulopathy. Viscoelastic point-of-care coagulation analysis was used to successfully and swiftly guide management of her coagulopathy. CONCLUSION: AFE can occur in the setting of induced abortion. This case report suggests viscoelastic point-of-care coagulation analyzers may aid in the management of pregnancy-related coagulopathy by providing faster coagulation assessment than laboratory testing, and facilitating timely, targeted management of coagulopathy.

Koagulopatia ze zuzycia jako wiodacy objaw zatoru plynem owodniowym -opis przypadku.

Amniotic fluid embolism is a rare and diagnostically challenging obstetric disease of high mortality rate. We present a case of a 33-year old parturient after vaginal birth, who presented with severe hemorrhagic shock with low platelet count and coagulopathy resistant to treatment with plasma, platelets and coagulation factors and despite of surgical management of bleeding. Laboratory findings revealed consumptive coagulopathy. Other symptoms included dyspnea and atelectatic changes on chest x-ray, together with augmentation of the heart with no proof of ventricular insufficiency in echocardiographic examination. The suspected reason of these alterations was amniotic fluid embolism. The patient survived and came back to her usual activity after 22 days of treatment.

Beyond Pulmonary Embolism; Nonthrombotic Pulmonary Embolism as Diagnostic Challenges.

Nonthrombotic pulmonary embolism (NTPE) is less well understood and is encountered less frequently than pulmonary embolism from venous thrombosis. NTPE results from embolization of nonthrombotic material to the pulmonary vasculature originating from many different cell types as well as nonbiologic or foreign materials. For many radiologists NTPE is a challenging diagnosis, presenting nonspecific or unusual imaging findings in the setting of few or unusual clinical signs. The aim of this paper is to review the pathophysiology of diverse causes of NTPE, which should aid radiologists to better understand and, more importantly, diagnose these infrequent events.

Embolia de líquido amniótico / Amniotic fluid embolism

Amniotic fluid embolism (AFE) represents a challenge for the medical team. Due to its low incidence and high mortality, it is one of the most complex conditions to manage during pregnancy and delivery. Our objective is to present the case of a 36-year- old high-risk obstetric patient, who was taken to the ward for emergency cesarean section, during which she presented acute hemodynamic collapse during fetal extraction maneuvers. Based on the clinic, echocardiographic evaluation, and hemodynamic monitoring, a diagnosis of amniotic embolism was made. In the critical care unit, the evolution was favorable with a good maternal outcome. Although the understanding of this pathology has improved in the last decade, it is still associated with a high rate of maternal and perinatal morbidity and mortality. In patients with suspected AFE, the routine use of echocardiography within the ward should be encouraged whenever available, while in the ICU the use of advanced hemodynamic monitoring is essential. Management should be early, with immediate recognition and the presence of a multidisciplinary team being key factors that reduce mortality. In this work, we review the literature with emphasis on the pathophysiology, diagnosis, obstetric, anesthetic, and intensive care management of this pathology.

La embolia de líquido amniótico (AFE) representa un desafío para el equipo médico. Debido a su baja incidencia y alta mortalidad es una de las condiciones más complejas de manejar durante el embarazo y el parto. Nuestro objetivo es presentar el caso de una paciente de 36 años de alto riesgo obstétrico, que es llevada a pabellón para cesárea de urgencia, quien durante las maniobras de extracción fetal presenta colapso hemodinámico agudo. Según clínica, evaluación ecocardiográfica y monitoreo hemodinámico, se plantea el diagnóstico de embolia amniótica. En la Unidad de cuidados críticos la evolución fue favorable con buen resultado materno. Si bien la comprensión de esta patología ha mejorado en la última década, sigue estando asociada a una alta tasa de morbimortalidad materna y perinatal. En pacientes con sospecha de AFE, se debe alentar el uso rutinario de la ecocardiografía dentro del pabellón siempre que se encuentre disponible, mientras que en UCI el uso de monitoreo hemodinámico avanzado es imprescindible. El manejo debe ser precoz, siendo el reconocimiento inmediato y la presencia de un equipo multidisciplinario factores claves que disminuyen la mortalidad. En este trabajo se hace una revisión bibliográfica con énfasis en la fisiopatología, diagnóstico, manejo obstétrico, anestésico y de cuidados intensivos de esta patología.

Amniotic fluid embolism causing catastrophic pulmonary vasoconstriction: diagnosis by transesophageal echocardiogram and treatment by cardiopulmonary bypass.

BACKGROUND: Amniotic fluid embolism is a rare yet often lethal peripartum complication resulting from rapid cardiovascular collapse. Progress toward a better understanding of this entity has failed to identify either the underlying hemodynamic pathophysiology or an effective evidence-based treatment. CASE: A 45-year-old woman with a documented placenta previa experienced an amniotic fluid embolism during scheduled cesarean delivery. Transesophageal echocardiogram examination revealed catastrophic pulmonary vasoconstriction. The use of cardiopulmonary bypass, heparin, epinephrine, and high-dose steroids resulted in a successful outcome. CONCLUSION: Timely placement of transesophageal echocardiogram revealed catastrophic pulmonary vasoconstriction as the cause of circulatory collapse in a patient with amniotic fluid embolism, supporting the use of cardiopulmonary bypass as an effective intervention.

Thrombotic and nonthrombotic pulmonary arterial embolism: spectrum of imaging findings.

Along with clinical examination and laboratory tests, imaging plays a key role in the diagnosis of pulmonary embolism. Multi-detector row helical computed tomography (CT) is particularly helpful in the diagnosis of acute pulmonary thromboembolism (PTE) owing to its capacity to directly show emboli as intravascular filling defects. Although parenchymal abnormalities at CT are nonspecific for acute PTE, they may contribute to a correct diagnosis of chronic PTE, the characteristic helical CT features of which are similar to its angiographic features and include webs or bands, intimal irregularities, abrupt narrowing or complete obstruction of the pulmonary arteries, and "pouching defect." Nonthrombotic pulmonary embolism is an uncommon condition but is sometimes associated with specific imaging findings, including discrete nodules with cavitation (septic embolism), widespread homogeneous and heterogeneous areas of increased opacity or attenuation that typically appear 12-24 hours after trauma (fat embolism), and fine miliary nodules that subsequently coalesce into large areas of increased opacity or attenuation (talcosis). Knowledge of appropriate imaging methods and familiarity with the specific imaging features of pulmonary embolism should facilitate prompt, effective diagnosis.

Severe maternal respiratory distress due to the amniotic fluid embolism syndrome in a twin pregnancy.

A 28-year-old female with a twin pregnancy at 29 6/7 weeks who was having premature uterine contractions developed acute respiratory failure due to sudden pulmonary oedema requiring mechanical ventilation. No evidence for venous thromboembolism, pulmonary infection or myocardial infarction was found. Subsequently a mild coagulopathy and foetal distress developed. Ultrasonography revealed oligohydramnios of one of the foetuses. A Caesarean section was performed and postoperatively mother and babies had an uneventful clinical course. By exclusion of other causes, we diagnosed severe maternal acute respiratory distress due to the amniotic fluid embolism syndrome in a twin pregnancy.

Massive amniotic fluid embolism: diagnosis aided by emergency transesophageal echocardiography.

A 36-year-old woman was hospitalized at term and in labor at 3-cm cervical dilatation. The early labor course was remarkable only for oxytocin augmentation and combined spinal-epidural analgesia. Eight hours after admission, tetanic uterine contractions ensued, followed by persistent fetal bradycardia. An emergency cesarean section was performed and a viable male infant was delivered. Intraoperatively, a placental abruption was identified, and disseminated intravascular coagulation and persistent hypotension developed despite resuscitative efforts. Transesophageal echocardiography revealed normal left ventricular contractility and gross enlargement of the right ventricle and main pulmonary trunk, consistent with acute right ventricular pressure overload and underloading of the left ventricle. Despite resuscitative efforts, the patient died three hours postoperatively. Autopsy showed extensive microvascular plugging of the pulmonary capillaries by fetal cells in all lung fields. This is a rare case of amniotic fluid embolism diagnosed in part and managed pre-mortem with transesophageal echocardiography and confirmed by autopsy findings.