A critical review of Pongamia pinnata multiple applications: From land remediation and carbon sequestration to socioeconomic benefits.

Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre (Pongamia) is a tree native to Southeast Asia. Recently, interest in Pongamia focused on its potential as a biofuel source as its seeds contain around 40% oil. However, Pongamia has multiple applications beyond biofuel production. It is a legume, can form symbiotic associations with mycorrhizal fungi, has been shown to be tolerant to drought, salinity, and heavy metals in soil, and has potential to mitigate climate change. Additionally, Pongamia oil has medicinal properties, can be used as biopesticide, insect repellent, to produce soap, and as a source of edible grade vegetable oil. The seed cake can be used as a source of bioenergy, food and feed protein, and organic fertiliser, and the flowers are a good source of pollen and nectar. Pongamia can also bring socio-economic benefits as its ability to restore degraded and contaminated land provides opportunities for local communities through novel valorisation pathways. These multiple applications have potential to form part of a circular bioeconomy in line with sustainable development goals. Although research on the multiple applications of Pongamia has grown considerably, knowledge gaps remain and these need to be addressed so that the full potential of Pongamia can be achieved. Further understanding of the mechanisms underlying its resilience to abiotic stresses, phytoremediation potential and biotic interactions should be a priority, and co-ordinated breeding efforts will be key. Here, we critically review the available literature on Pongamia and highlight gaps in knowledge in which future research should focus on to ensure that the full potential of this versatile tree can be achieved. We conclude that Pongamia can potentially form part of a circular bioeconomy and that harnessing the multiple applications of Pongamia in a holistic manner, with collaboration among key stakeholders, is crucial for the successful application of its benefits far beyond biofuel production.

Biochemical and toxicological investigation of karanjin, a bio-pesticide isolated from Pongamia seed oil.

Karanjin, a furanoflavonol from Pongamia pinnata L is used in agricultural practices for its pesticidal, insecticidal and acaricidal activities. It is commercially available as a bio-pesticide targeting a wide variety of pests. The present study was intended to evaluate the biochemical interactions of karanjin with bovine serum albumin (BSA) and study its toxicological effects on mammalian and bacterial cell lines. Karanjin bound to BSA at a single site with a dissociation constant of 19.7 µM. Evaluation of BSA-karanjin interactions at three different temperatures indicated the involvement of static mode of quenching. Binding experiments in the presence of warfarin and computational docking analysis indicated that karanjin bound closer to the warfarin binding site located in the Subdomain IIA of BSA. Using Förster resonance energy transfer analysis the distance between TRP 213 of BSA and karanjin was found to be 20 Å. Collective results from synchronous fluorescence spectra analysis, differential scanning calorimetry, and circular dichroism analysis indicated that binding of karanjin induced conformational changes in the secondary structure of BSA. Karanjin exhibited low toxicity against human cervical cancer cells and normal mouse fibroblast L929 cells and modestly inhibited the growth of B. subtilis and E. coli cells. The data presented in this study provides insights for understanding the binding interactions of karanjin with BSA and its possible toxicological effects on mammalian cell lines and bacteria.

Unravelling the MicroRNA-Mediated Gene Regulation in Developing Pongamia Seeds by High-Throughput Small RNA Profiling.

Pongamia (Millettia pinnata syn. Pongamia pinnata) is a multipurpose biofuel tree which can withstand a variety of abiotic stresses. Commercial applications of Pongamia trees may substantially benefit from improvements in their oil-seed productivity, which is governed by complex regulatory mechanisms underlying seed development. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are important molecular regulators of plant development, while relatively little is known about their roles in seed development, especially for woody plants. In this study, we identified 236 conserved miRNAs within 49 families and 143 novel miRNAs via deep sequencing of Pongamia seeds sampled at three developmental phases. For these miRNAs, 1327 target genes were computationally predicted. Furthermore, 115 differentially expressed miRNAs (DEmiRs) between successive developmental phases were sorted out. The DEmiR-targeted genes were preferentially enriched in the functional categories associated with DNA damage repair and photosynthesis. The combined analyses of expression profiles for DEmiRs and functional annotations for their target genes revealed the involvements of both conserved and novel miRNA-target modules in Pongamia seed development. Quantitative Real-Time PCR validated the expression changes of 15 DEmiRs as well as the opposite expression changes of six targets. These results provide valuable miRNA candidates for further functional characterization and breeding practice in Pongamia and other oilseed plants.

Thermo-kinetics and product analysis of the catalytic pyrolysis of Pongamia residual cake.

Catalytic fast pyrolysis of Pongamia residual cake (PRC) and the kinetics of this were evaluated using thermogravimetry and pyrolysis-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry analyses. The influence of the heating rate on the devolatilization process was studied to obtain corresponding kinetic information. Kissinger-Akahira-Sunose (KAS) and Flynn-Wall-Ozawa (FWO) model-free isoconversion methods were used to predict the kinetic parameters. The major thermal degradation of PRC occurred around 150-550 °C with an activation energy of 97.2-394.3 kJ/mol or 114.5-412.2 kJ/mol as determined by the KAS and FWO methods, respectively. Micro-scale pyrolysis trials were performed to determine the effects of the PRC particle size, reaction temperature and PRC: catalyst weight ratio on the pyrolytic product distribution and upgraded pyrolytic vapor properties for the 5 wt% Ni impregnated on activated carbon (AC), aluminium(III) oxide (Al2O3), kaolin and zeolite NaA supports. The results indicated that using a 1:5 PRC: Ni/AC catalyst weight ratio with medium-sized PRC particles (125-425 µm) was the most effective condition for the conversion of oxygenated (O)-compounds to hydrocarbons (HCs) through decarbonylation, decarboxylation and dehydration reactions, giving the highest decrease (99%) in O-compounds. Increased HC yields, to more than 58%, were also obtained with this catalyst. Similarly, using the other synthesized Ni catalysts resulted in a reduction in the O-compounds and production of favorable HC species, albeit to a lesser extent. Therefore, the catalytic pyrolysis process of this residue, especially with a Ni/AC catalyst, has the potential to be a viable option for producing upgraded pyrolysis oil, which may be applied as a quality alternative biofuel.

Biosorptive removal of Zn(II) ions by Pongamia oil cake (Pongamia pinnata) in batch and fixed-bed column studies using response surface methodology and artificial neural network.

Design of experiment and artificial neural networks (ANN) have been effectively employed to predict the rate of uptake of Zn(II) ions onto defatted pongamia oil cake. Four independent variables such as, pH (2.0-7.0), initial concentration of Zn(II) ions (50-500 mg/L), temperature (30ºC-50 °C), and dosage of biosorbent (1.0-5.0 g/L) were used for the batch mode while the three independent variables viz. flowrate, initial concentration of Zn(II) ions and bed height were employed for the continuous mode. Second-order polynomial equations were then derived to predict the Zn(II) ion uptake rate. The optimum conditions for batch studies was found to be pH: 4.45, metal ion concentration: 462.48 mg/L, dosage: 2.88 g/L, temperature: 303 K and on the other hand the column studies flow rate: 5.59 mL/min, metal ion concentration: 499.3 mg/L and bed height: 14.82 cm. Under these optimal condition, the adsorption capacity was 80.66 mg/g and 66.29 mg/g for batch and column studies, respectively. The same data was fed to train a feed-forward multilayered perceptron, using MATLAB to develop the ANN based model. The predictive capabilities of the two methodologies were compared, by means of the absolute average deviation (AAD) (4.57%), model predictive error (MPE) (4.15%), root mean square error (RMSE) (3.19), standard error of prediction (SEP) (4.23) and correlation coefficient (R) (0.99) for ANN and for RSM AAD (16.27%), MPE (21,25%), RMSE (13.15%), SEP and R (0.96) by validation data. The findings suggested that compared to the prediction ability of RSM model, the properly trained ANN model has better prediction ability. In batch studies, equilibrium data was used to determine the isotherm constants and first and second order rate constants. In column, bed depth service time (BDST) and Thomas model was used to fit the obtained column data.

Adsorption of Methylene blue and Rhodamine B by using biochar derived from Pongamia glabra seed cover.

Biochar obtained through the pyrolysis of Pongamia glabra seed cover (PGSC) at 550 °C with a heating rate of 40 °C/min was characterized and its ability to adsorb the dyes Methylene blue (MB) and Rhodamine B (RB) from aqueous solutions was investigated. The effect of pH, temperature and initial concentration of the dyes on adsorption behavior were investigated. The equilibrium sorption data were analyzed by using Langmuir, Freundlich, Temkin, and Dubinin-Radushkevich (D-R) isotherms. Equilibrium data were well fitted for D-R isotherm in case of MB and Langmuir isotherm in case of RB dyes. The kinetics of dye adsorption on PGSC biochar was well described by applying pseudo-second-order rate equations. The surface of adsorbent before and after the removal of dyes was characterized by using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis. The study suggested that PGSC biochar could be used as a highly efficient adsorbent for the removal of synthetic dyes.

Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Pongamia pinnata seed: Characterization, antibacterial property, and spectroscopic investigation of interaction with human serum albumin.

In recent years, green synthesized nanoparticles from plant extract have drawn a great interest due to their prospective nanomedicinal application. This study investigates a proficient, safer, and sustainable way for the preparation of AgNPs using medicinal plant Pongamia pinnata (family: Leguminoseae, species: Pinnata) seeds extract without using any external reducing and stabilizing agent. Both ultraviolet-visible spectrum at λmax  = 439 nm and energy dispersive X-ray spectra proof the formation of AgNPs. An average diameter of the AgNPs was 16.4 nm as revealed from transmission electron microscope. Hydrodynamic size (d = ~19.6 nm) was determined by dynamic light scattering (DLS). Zeta potential of AgNPs was found to be -23.7 mV, which supports its dispersion and stability. Fourier transform infrared study revealed that the O â”€ H, C â• O, and C-O-C groups were responsible for the formation of AgNPs. The antibacterial activity of the synthesized AgNPs was checked against Escherichia coli ATCC 25922. AgNPs at its LD50 dose exhibited synergistic effect with ampicillin. Because protein-AgNPs association greatly affects its adsorption, distribution, and functionality and can also influence the functions of biomolecules. So in order to understand the adsorption and bioavailability, we investigated by fluorescence, ultraviolet-visible, and circular dichroism spectroscopic methods the interaction of synthesized AgNPs toward human serum albumin. The binding affinity and binding sites of human serum albumin toward AgNPs were measured by using the fluorescence quenching data. The circular dichroism spectroscopic results revealed that there was a negligible change of α-helical content in their native structure. Overall, these AgNPs show versatile biological activities and may be applied in the field of nanomedicine.

Numerical investigation of exhaust gas emissions for a dual fuel engine configuration using diesel and pongamia oil.

The investigation presented in this paper focuses on determination of gaseous exhaust emissions by computational simulation during combustion in compression ignition engine with pongamia oil substitution. Combustion is modeled using Equilibrium Constants Method (ECM) with MATLAB program to calculate the mole fraction of 10 combustion products when pongamia oil is burnt along with diesel at variable equivalence ratio and blend ratio. It had been observed that pongamia oil substitution causes decrease in the CO emission and increase in the NOx emission as the blend ratio as well as equivalence ratio increases.

Antioxidant activity of chemically synthesized AgNPs and biosynthesized Pongamia pinnata leaf extract mediated AgNPs - A comparative study.

Biosynthesis of metal nanoparticles is the present research in the limb of nanotechnology which reduces the toxicity of metal nanoparticles. Green chemistry approach emphasizes that the usage of plant material has offered a reliable, simple, nontoxic and eco-friendly that links Nanotechnology and Biotechnology. Increasing environmental concerns over chemical synthesis routes have resulted in attempts to develop bio-mimetic approaches. The current study deals with novel method for biosynthesis of AgNPs using Pongamia pinnata leaf extract as reducing agent. These biosynthesized nanoparticles were characterized with the help of UV-vis Spectroscopy, Photoluminescence (PL) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Atomic force microscopy (AFM), Dynamic light scattering (DLS) and Zeta Potential (ZP). Free radical scavenging potential of P. pinnata synthesized silver nanoparticles was evaluated in vitro by using five different assays viz., DPPH, ABT+S, Hydroxyl, Superoxide anion and Nitric oxide scavenging assays are also adopted. Capping of AgNPs by various polyphenolic compounds present in P. pinnata leaf extract appears to be a major contributor to lower toxicity compared to chemically synthesized AgNPs. The surface plasmon resonance shows 425nm and grain size of the AgNPs was measured from XRD and FTIR revealed the bioconjucation of AgNPs. The in vitro antioxidant activity of AgNPs showed a significant effect on scavenging of free radicals. The results suggest that the silver nanoparticles from P. pinnata can be potent natural antioxidants and can be essential for health preservation against oxidative stress related degenerative diseases, such as cancer. The vitality of this study lies in the formation of silver nanoparticles by utilizing the wealth of global ecological resources, eliminating obnoxious and toxic reagents which are hazardous to be handled as well as to be applied.

Evidence for the involvement of nematocidal toxins of Purpureocillium lilacinum 6029 cultured on Karanja deoiled cake liquid medium.

In present study, in vitro nematocidal bioassays, FT-IR and HPLC analysis were employed to demonstrate the involvement of toxins of Purpureocillium lilacinum in killing root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne incognita). During growth study, maximum mycelial biomass (10.52 g/l) in de-oiled Karanja cake medium was achieved on 8th day while complete mortality of nematodes was obtained by 6th day filtrate (FKSM). Maximum production of crude nematocidal toxin was recorded on 7th day suggesting that the toxin production was paralleled with growth of the fungus. The median lethal concentration (LC50) determined for the crude toxin from 6th day to 10th day ranged from 89.41 to 43.21 ppm. The median lethal time (LT50) for the crude toxin of FKSM was found to be 1.46 h. This is the first report of implementing a comparative infra-red spectroscopy coupled with HPLC analysis to predict the presence of nematocidal toxin in the fungal filtrate cultured on Karanja deoiled cake liquid medium.

Synthesis of biodiesel from pongamia oil using heterogeneous ion-exchange resin catalyst.

Biodiesel is a clean-burning renewable substitute fuel for petroleum. Biodiesel could be effectively produced by transesterification reaction of triglycerides of vegetable oils with short-chain alcohols in the presence of homogeneous or heterogeneous catalysts. Conventionally, biodiesel manufacturing processes employ strong acids or bases as catalysts. But, separation of the catalyst and the by-product glycerol from the product ester is too expensive to justify the product use as an automobile fuel. Hence heterogeneous catalysts are preferred. In this study, transesterification of pongamia oil with ethanol was performed using a solid ion-exchange resin catalyst. It is a macro porous strongly basic anion exchange resin. The process parameters affecting the ethyl ester yield were investigated. The reaction conditions were optimized for the maximum yield of fatty acid ethyl ester (FAEE) of pongamia oil. The properties of FAEE were compared with accepted standards of biodiesel. Engine performance was also studied with pongamia oil diesel blend and engine emission characteristics were observed.

Production characterization and working characteristics in DICI engine of Pongamia biodiesel.

Renewable energy plays a predominant role in solving the current energy requirement problems and biodiesel is a promising alternative fuel to tide over the energy crisis and conserve fossil fuels. The present work investigates an eco-friendly substitute for the replacement of fossil fuels and the experiments are designed to determine the effects of a catalyst in the biodiesel production processes. Pongamia pinnata oil was utilized to produce the biodiesel by using catalysts namely KOH and NaOH and the properties of the fuel were found by using Carbon Hydrogen Nitrogen Sulfur (CHNS) elemental analysis, Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy, Gas Chromatography & Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS), and Proton Nuclear Magnetic Resonance ((1)H NMR) Spectroscopy and the thermophysical properties were compared with those of neat diesel. In continuation, the working characteristics of the biodiesel and biodiesel-water emulsions were accomplished in a four stroke compression ignition engine and the results were compared to those of neat diesel. It was found that the exhaust emission characteristics like brake specific carbon monoxide (BSCO), brake specific hydrocarbons (BSHC) and smoke opacity were better for neat biodiesel (except brake specific nitric oxide BSNO) than those of neat diesel.

Studies on repellent activity of seed oils alone and in combination on mosquito, Aedes aegypti.

The study was undertaken to investigate the relative repellency of Pongamia pinnata and Azadirachta indica seed oils on vector mosquito, Aedes aegypti under laboratory conditions. The repellents were formulated into 3 groups: seed oils, their mixture and combination of seed oils with three carrier oils viz. olive, mustard and coconut oil. Different formulations of each oil were tested at the concentrations of 1% and 5% on human baits. Efficiency was assessed, based on the total protection time; biting rate and percent protection provided by each formulation. Results showed that 5% formulation of the Pongamia pinnata and Azadirachta indica seed oils, mixed in 1:1 ratio exhibited highest percentage repellency of 85%, protection time of 300 min and bite rate of 6%. 5% concentration of A. indica and P. pinnata seed oil in mustard oil base offered 86.36% and 85% protection respectively with total protection time of 230 and 240 min respectively. The study confirms that Azadirachta indica and Pongamia pinnata have mosquito-repellent potential. When mixed in different ratios or with some carrier oil their efficacy increases 2-fold in some cases. These formulations are very promising for topical use (> 5 hrs complete protection) and are comparable to the protection provided by advanced Odomos mosquito repellent cream available commercially and thus are recommended for field trial.

Biogas production from Pongamia biomass wastes and a model to estimate biodegradability from their composition.

In this study, I investigated the chemical characteristics, biochemical methane potential, conversion kinetics and biodegradability of untreated and NaOH-treated Pongamia plant parts, and pod husk and press cake from the biodiesel industry to evaluate their suitability as an alternative feedstock for biogas production. The untreated Pongamia seeds exhibited the maximum CH4 yield of 473 ml g (-1) volatile solid (VS) added. Yellow, withered leaves gave a yield as low as 122 ml CH4 g (-1) VS added. There were significant variations in the CH4 production rate constants, which ranged from 0.02 to 0.15 d (-1), and biodegradability, which ranged from 0.25 to 0.98. NaOH treatment of leaf and pod husk, which were highly rich in fibers, increased the yields by 15-22% and CH4 production rate constants by 20-75%. Utilization of Pongamia wastes in biogas digesters not only influences the economics of biodiesel production but also yields CH4 fuel and protects the environment. The experimental data from this study were used to develop a multiple regression model, which could estimate biodegradability based on biochemical characteristics. The model predicted the biodegradability of previously published biomass wastes (r(2) = 0.88) from their biochemical composition. The theoretical CH4 yields estimated as 350 ml g(-1) chemical oxygen demand destroyed are much higher than the experimental yields as 100% biodegradability is assumed for each substrate. Upon correcting the theoretical CH4 yields with biodegradability data obtained from chemical analyses of substrates, their ultimate CH4 yields could be predicted rapidly.

A novel herbal formulation against dengue vector mosquitoes Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus.

The objective of this study was to develop a herbal formulation to control dengue vector mosquitoes. PONNEEM, a novel herbal formulation prepared using the oils of neem (Azadirachta indica), karanj (Pongamia glabra) and their extracts, was tested for larvicidal, ovicidal and oviposition deterrent activities against Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus at 1, 0.5, 0.3 and 0.1 ppm concentrations. Cent percent larvicidal and ovicidal activities were observed at 0.1 ppm in the two mosquito species under laboratory and sunlight-exposed conditions up to 12 months from the date of manufacture. Oviposition deterrent activity of 69.97% and 71.05% was observed at 1 ppm concentration of PONNEEM against A. aegypti and A. albopictus, respectively. Reduction in enzyme levels for α-esterase was 0.089 ± 0.008 and 0.099 ± 0.140 µg napthol produced/min/mg larval protein; for ß-esterase, it was 0.004 ± 0.009 and 0.001 ± 0.028 µg napthol produced/min/mg larval protein; for glutathione S-transferase, it was 10.4814 ± 0.23 and 11.4811 ± 0.21 µmol/min/mg larval protein and for total protein, it was 0.177 ± 0.010 and 0.008 ± 0.005 mg/individual larva in treated groups of A. aegypti and A. albopictus, respectively. The nontarget organisms such as Gambusia affinis and Diplonychus indicus were not affected. No mortality was observed in control. PONNEEM can be used effectively for the management of human vector mosquitoes.

Studies on Oecophylla smaragdina as a bio-control agent against pentatomid bug infesting on Pongamia tree.

Weaver ants, (Oecophylla smaragdina) have been found to predate on pentatomid bug (Cyclopelta siccifolia) infesting Pongamia pinnata tree in mid-western Ghat region of Shimoga district, Karnataka. The present study was undertaken to evaluate the potential of weaver ants, that are abundant on P. pinnata trees, to control the pentatomid bugs. Consistent and systematic field surveillance was carried out for a period of two months, March and July 2010. This showed that the number of pentatomid bugs colony found on branches of tree was significantly lower in tree with abundant weaver ants (11.21-16.84%) than in trees with fewer weaver ants (26.51-38.24%), or in trees without ants (61.42-75.47%) similarly, the branches damaged by pentatomid bug (9.42-11.43%) their in trees with abundant weaver ants which was significantly lower than in trees with fewer weaver ants (16.13-23.24%) and without ants (38.42-51.47%) in March and July. The pentatomid bug colony and their damage was significantly low on trees with abundant weaver ants than with fewer ants, or without the ants. Field observations regarding infestation of pentatomid bugs revealed that weaver ants are effective naturally occurring biological agents help in controlling damage caused by pentatomid bugs on Pongamia trees.

Safety and toxicologic evaluation of Edible Pongamia Oil: A novel food ingredient.

Edible Pongamia Oil (EPO) was evaluated in an acute oral toxicity study, GLP 14-Day and 90-Day repeated dose isocaloric dietary toxicity studies in rats, and in vitro Bacterial Reverse Mutation, and in vivo Mammalian Bone Marrow Chromosome Aberration genotoxicity studies for potential use as a food ingredient. In a non-GLP acute study, an LD50 > 5000 mg/kg was determined. Subacute 14-day repeated dose dietary administration of 0, 5, 10 and 15% oil revealed no adverse changes in clinical pathology, liver histology, body weight or weight gain, food consumption or food efficiency. In a 90-day dietary study fed 0, 2.5, 5.0, 7.5 and 10.0%, no mortalities, clinical or ophthalmologic signs, body weight, body weight gain, food consumption, food efficiency or Functional Observational Battery/Motor Activity changes occurred with EPO consumption, nor were there any adverse changes in hematology, clinical chemistry, coagulation, urinalysis, or thyroid hormone values. There were no adverse macroscopic, estrus cycle, histopathologic or spermatogenesis findings, or absolute or relative organ weight changes related to administration of EPO. The No-Adverse-Effect-Level (NOAEL) was 10% in the diet, the highest dose tested, equivalent to 5163 (male) and 6469 (female) mg/kg/day in rats. No mutagenic or clastogenic genotoxic potential was reported.

Emissions from diesel versus biodiesel fuel used in a CRDI SUV engine: PM mass and chemical composition.

The diesel tailpipe emissions typically undergo substantial physical and chemical transformations while traveling through the tailpipe, which tend to modify the original characteristics of the diesel exhaust. Most of the health-related attention for diesel exhaust has focused on the carcinogenic potential of inhaled exhaust components, particularly the highly respirable diesel particulate matter (DPM). In the current study, parametric investigations were made using a modern automotive common rail direct injection (CRDI) sports utility vehicle (SUV) diesel engine operated at different loads at constant engine speed (2400 rpm), employing diesel and 20% biodiesel blends (B20) produced from karanja oil. A partial flow dilution tunnel was employed to measure the mass of the primary particulates from diesel and biodiesel blend on a 47-mm quartz substrate. This was followed by chemical analysis of the particulates collected on the substrate for benzene-soluble organic fraction (BSOF) (marker of toxicity). BSOF results showed decrease in its level with increasing engine load for both diesel and biodiesel. In addition, real-time measurements for organic carbon/elemental carbon (OC/EC), and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) (marker of toxicity) were carried out on the diluted primary exhaust coming out of the partial flow dilution tunnel. PAH concentrations were found to be the maximum at 20% rated engine load for both the fuels. The collected particulates from diesel and biodiesel-blend exhaust were also analyzed for concentration of trace metals (marker of toxicity), which revealed some interesting results.

Therapeutic Potential of Genus Pongamia and Derris: Phytochemical and Bioactivity.

Genus Pongamia and Derris belong to the Leguminosae family and are reported synonymously in literature. Although many compounds have been isolated from different plant parts but seed oil is known to produce non-edible medicinally important furanoflavonoids. The seed oil, commonly known as Karanj oil in Ayurvedic and Siddha traditional systems of medicine, is reported for the treatment of various skin infections and psoriasis. Several phytopharmacological investigations have proved the medicinal potential of furanoflavonoids in the skin and other disorders. Not only furanoflavonoids but several other important phenolic constituents such as chalcones, dibenzoylmethanes, aurones, isoflavones, flavanone dihydroflavonol, flavans, pterocarpans, rotenoids, coumarins, coumestans, stilbenoids and peltygynoids and their glycosides have been reported for different biological activities including antihyperglycemic, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, insecticidal, anti-alzheimer's, gastro protective, antifungal, antibacterial, etc. In the present review, the phytochemistry and pharmacological activities of the genera Pongamia and Derris have been summarized.

Viscosity prediction of Pongamia pinnata (Karanja) oil by molecular dynamics simulation using GAFF and OPLS force field.

The increasing concern on the harmful effects caused by mineral oil-based lubricants towards the environment has given impetus to the evolution of green-lubricants. Vegetable oils are highly biodegradable, renewable, and possesses good lubricating property. In the present study Pongamia pinnata, non-edible vegetable oil, also known as Karanja Oil (KO) was used as the base oil for a lubricant. The preliminary properties, such as fatty acid profile and viscosity, which has a vital role in governing the performance of lubricants were evaluated experimentally as per international standards. The shear viscosity of KO which constitutes 8 major fatty acids were predicted using non-equilibrium molecular dynamics (NEMD) and periodic perturbation (PP) method using Optimised Potentials for Liquid Simulations (OPLS) and Generalized Amber Force Field (GAFF). The shear viscosities were evaluated at temperatures ranging from 313K to 373 K and pressure P = 0.1 MPa. The experimental and simulation data of KO shear viscosity are in line with each other using OPLS. The kinematic viscosities were calculated using the shear viscosities and densities obtained from simulation. The variation between experimental and simulation data is less while using OPLS, while GAFF force fields resulted in higher deviations.