Effects of antidepressant on FKBP51 mRNA expression and neuroendocrine hormones in patients with panic disorder.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of escitalopram on the peripheral expression of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis-related genes (FKBP51, HSP90, NR3C1 and POMC) and HPA-axis hormones in patients with panic disorder (PD). METHODS: Seventy-seven patients with PD were treated with escitalopram for 12 weeks. All participants were assessed for the severity of panic symptoms using the Panic Disorder Severity Scale (PDSS). The expression of HPA-axis genes was measured using real-time quantitative fluorescent PCR, and ACTH and cortisol levels were measured using chemiluminescence at baseline and after 12 weeks of treatment. RESULTS: At baseline, patients with PD had elevated levels of ACTH and cortisol, and FKBP51 expression in comparison to healthy controls (all p < 0.01). Correlation analysis revealed that FKBP51 expression levels were significantly positively related to cortisol levels and the severity of PD (all p < 0.01). Furthermore, baseline ACTH and cortisol levels, and FKBP51 expression levels were significantly reduced after 12 weeks of treatment, and the change in the PDSS score from baseline to post-treatment was significantly and positively related to the change in cortisol (p < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that PD may be associated with elevated levels of ACTH and cortisol, and FKBP51 expression, and that all three biomarkers are substantially decreased in patients who have received escitalopram treatment.

Personalized virtual reality exposure for panic disorder and agoraphobia: A preliminary neurophysiological study.

BACKGROUND: Personalization is considered an important principle in virtual reality (VR) exposure therapy. We aimed to identify whether personalized VR exposure could provoke increased anxiety in patients with panic disorder and agoraphobia as it is considered the first step in successful treatment for anxiety. METHODS: We performed a double-arm, one-day preliminary study among 28 patients with panic disorder and agoraphobia. Three sessions of VR exposure, including a theater, train, and elevator scenario, were conducted in two groups. In the personalized group (n = 14), the brightness and crowd density were customized based on a pre-assessment. In the control group (n = 14), these conditions were fully randomized. Self-reported anxiety, heart rate, skin conductance, and electroencephalography were measured before, during, and after the VR sessions. RESULTS: In the later VR sessions, higher self-reported anxiety levels measured by the Visual Analogue Scale were observed in the personalized exposure group. Increased heart rates during and after the VR sessions were observed in the personalized group. The changes in skin conductance peaks were not significantly different between the groups, but the increase in skin conductance was associated with the participants' perception of presence. The electroencephalogram showed widespread increases in alpha waves in the frontal and temporal areas of the brain in the personalized group than in the control group. CONCLUSION: Personalized VR exposure elicits stronger anxiogenic effects in patients with panic disorder and agoraphobia as suggested by self-report and neurophysiological data. Personalization of VR exposure has the potential for effective behavioral therapy.

Discrimination between healthy participants and people with panic disorder based on polygenic scores for psychiatric disorders and for intermediate phenotypes using machine learning.

OBJECTIVE: Panic disorder is a modestly heritable condition. Currently, diagnosis is based only on clinical symptoms; identifying objective biomarkers and a more reliable diagnostic procedure is desirable. We investigated whether people with panic disorder can be reliably diagnosed utilizing combinations of multiple polygenic scores for psychiatric disorders and their intermediate phenotypes, compared with single polygenic score approaches, by applying specific machine learning techniques. METHODS: Polygenic scores for 48 psychiatric disorders and intermediate phenotypes based on large-scale genome-wide association studies (n = 7556-1,131,881) were calculated for people with panic disorder (n = 718) and healthy controls (n = 1717). Discrimination between people with panic disorder and healthy controls was based on the 48 polygenic scores using five methods for classification: logistic regression, neural networks, quadratic discriminant analysis, random forests and a support vector machine. Differences in discrimination accuracy (area under the curve) due to an increased number of polygenic score combinations and differences in the accuracy across five classifiers were investigated. RESULTS: All five classifiers performed relatively well for distinguishing people with panic disorder from healthy controls by increasing the number of polygenic scores. Of the 48 polygenic scores, the polygenic score for anxiety UK Biobank was the most useful for discrimination by the classifiers. In combinations of two or three polygenic scores, the polygenic score for anxiety UK Biobank was included as one of polygenic scores in all classifiers. When all 48 polygenic scores were used in combination, the greatest areas under the curve significantly differed among the five classifiers. Support vector machine and logistic regression had higher accuracy than quadratic discriminant analysis and random forests. For each classifier, the greatest area under the curve was 0.600 ± 0.030 for logistic regression (polygenic score combinations N = 14), 0.591 ± 0.039 for neural networks (N = 9), 0.603 ± 0.033 for quadratic discriminant analysis (N = 10), 0.572 ± 0.039 for random forests (N = 25) and 0.617 ± 0.041 for support vector machine (N = 11). The greatest areas under the curve at the best polygenic score combination significantly differed among the five classifiers. Random forests had the lowest accuracy among classifiers. Support vector machine had higher accuracy than neural networks. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that increasing the number of polygenic score combinations up to approximately 10 effectively improved the discrimination accuracy and that support vector machine exhibited greater accuracy among classifiers. However, the discrimination accuracy for panic disorder, when based solely on polygenic score combinations, was found to be modest.

Evaluation of effect of brief-intensive cognitive behavior therapy on symptoms severity in relation with catastrophic cognition in patients with panic disorder: a randomized controlled trial.

INTRODUCTION: Due to a dearth of evidence, we examined the effectiveness of brief-intensive CBT on symptom severity and catastrophic cognition in patients with panic disorder (PD). MATERIALS AND METHODS: In this randomized controlled trial, 155 patients were assigned to either the experimental group (2 successive days of brief-intensive CBT-3 h per day) or the control group (regular pharmacotherapy only). After excluding ineligible participants, 20 patients in the brief intensive CBT group and 18 patients in the control group completed the study and were included in the final analysis. The primary outcome was symptom severity, and the secondary outcome was catastrophic cognition, assessed by the Panic Disorder Severity Scale (PDSS) for symptoms severity and the Agoraphobic Cognition Scale (ACS) for cognitive assessment, respectively. RESULTS: The study showed that after one month of treatment, the PDSS (1.70 vs. 4.78; p = 0.0172) in the brief-intensive CBT group was significantly lower compared to the control group in contrast with the ACS (5.10 vs. 5.44; p = 0.8533). The mean score of PDSS and ACS significantly decreased from 21.60 to 1.7 (p < 0.0001) and from 22.55 to 5.10 (p < 0.0001) in the brief CBT group and from 19.44 to 4.78 (p < 0.0001) and 20.00 to 5.44 (p < 0.0001) in the control group, respectively. After treatment, the mean scores of PDSS and ACS significantly decreased in the brief intensive CBT and control groups. Both higher ACS and lower education levels contributed to higher PDSS in the brief intensive CBT group. However, only the PDSS correlated to the ACS in the control group. CONCLUSIONS: The study showed that brief-intensive CBT is an effective technique for reducing the severity of symptoms among PD patients. But, it was not effective to improve the cognitive level in PD patients at one month.

Panic disorder respiratory subtype: psychopathology and challenge tests - an update

Panic disorder (PD) pathophysiology is very heterogeneous, and the discrimination of distinct subtypes could be very useful. A subtype based on respiratory symptoms is known to constitute a specific subgroup. However, evidence to support the respiratory subtype (RS) as a distinct subgroup of PD with a well-defined phenotype remains controversial. Studies have focused on characterization of the RS based on symptoms and response to CO2. In this line, we described clinical and biological aspects focused on symptomatology and CO2 challenge tests in PD RS. The main symptoms that characterize RS are dyspnea (shortness of breath) and a choking sensation. Moreover, patients with the RS tended to be more responsive to CO2 challenge tests, which triggered more panic attacks in this subgroup. Future studies should focus on discriminating respiratory-related clusters and exploring psychophysiological and neuroimaging outcomes in order to provide robust evidence to confirm RS as a distinct subtype of PD.

Características básicas do transtorno do pânico / Basic features of panic disorder

O objetivo é caracterizar o Transtorno do Pânico (TP) com ênfase em seu diagnóstico e tratamento. O TP é um dos transtornos de ansiedade, caracterizado por ataques de pânico recorrentes acompanhados por uma persistente preocupação com ataques adicionais e alterações mal adaptativas do comportamento (Associação Americana de Psiquiatria - DSM-V). Sua etiologia ainda não é conhecida, mas deve envolver uma interação de fatores genéticos, de desenvolvimento e ambientais que resultam em altera- ções no funcionamento de algumas áreas cerebrais. O tratamento farmacológico de primeira escolha é com o uso de antidepressivos inibidores seletivos da recaptação de serotonina, os quais apresentam uma latência de 20 a 30 dias para o início do efeito. (AU)

The aim of this paper is to characterize the Panic Disorder (PD) with an emphasis on diagnosis and treatment. PD is one of the anxiety disorders, characterized by recurrent panic attacks accompanied by a persistent preoccupation with additional attacks and maladaptive behavioral changes (American Psychiatric Association ­ DSM-V). Its etiology is not known, but should involve an interaction of genetic, developmental and environmental factors that result in changes in the functioning of some brain areas. The pharmacological treatment of choice is with the use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, which has a latency of 20 for 30 days for the beginning of the therapeutic effect. (AU)

Impulsivity in drug-naïve panic disorder

Background: Impulsivity is a key feature of numerous psychiatric disorders. However, the relationship between impulsivity and anxiety disorders is arguable and not well explored. Several methodological considerations related to data interpretation arise when patients previously exposed to psychotropic medication are included in the study population. To address those issues we designed a study in a well defined cohort of treatment-naïve panic disorder patients. Material and methods: This case-control study was designed to evaluate impulsivity and its dimensions in the group of 21 psychotropic drug-naïve outpatients with panic disorder and 20 healthy controls. The severity of Panic Disorder was assessed with Panic and Agoraphobia Scale (PAS). Impulsiveness was evaluated with the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale, 11th version (BIS-11). Results: According to our study patients with panic disorders had higher level of both total impulsivity and all impulsivity dimensions comparing to healthy controls. Limitations: The number of participating subjects was relatively small. The study results apply to drug-naïve panic disorder patients without agoraphobia. Conclusion: Opposing to the traditional conceptualizations suggesting that impulsivity displays a negative relationship with anxiety this study provides evidence for higher level of impulsivity in drug-naïve patients with panic disorder comparing to healthy controls

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Ansiedade e coração / Anxiety and heart

A ansiedade patológica e suas repercussões fisiológicas não afligem apenas o bem-estar psíquico e a funcionalidade. A saúde geral também fica comprometida, com aumento da incidência de comorbidades clínicas. Entre estas, as mais significativamente associadas com ansiedade são as doenças da tireoide, doença do refluxo gastroesofágico, psoríase e, sobretudo, as doenças cardíacas. Estas são as mais importantes do ponto de vista de morbidade e mortalidade. Ansiedade e doença cardíaca não são meras comorbidades, mas exercem uma complexa interação, que discutiremos neste texto...

The pathological anxiety and the physiological rebounds don't attack well-being and the functionality only. General health is committed as well, whith medical comorbidity increase. Among these, the more associated significantly with anxiety are thyroid disease, gastroesophageal reflux disease, psoriasis, and mainly heart diseases. These are the mostly important point of view about morbidity and mortality. Anxiety and heart disease are not just comorbidity, but they act with a complex interaction which will be discussing in this paper...

Personality disorders among patients with panic disorder and individuals with anxiety sensitivity / Trastornos de personalidad en pacientes con trastorno de pánico y en personas con alta sensibilidad a la ansiedad

BACKGROUND: No studies have been found that compared the psychopathology features, including personality disorders, of Panic Disorder (PD) and Panic Disorder with Agoraphobia (PDA), and a nonclinical sample with anxiety vulnerability. METHOD: The total sample included 152 participants, 52 in the PD/PDA, 45 in the high anxiety sensitivity (AS) sample, and 55 in the nonclinical sample. The participants in PD/PDA sample were evaluated with the structured interview ADIS-IV. The Brief Symptom Inventory and the MCMI-III were used in all three samples. RESULTS: Statistically significant differences were found between the PD/PDA and the nonclinical sample in all MCMI-III scales except for antisocial and compulsive. No significant differences were found between PD/PDA and the sample with high scores in AS. Phobic Anxiety and Paranoid Ideation were the only scales where there were significant differences between the PD/PDA sample and the high AS sample. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings showed that people who scored high on AS, despite not having a diagnosis of PD/PDA, were similar in regard to psychopathology features and personality to individuals with PD/PDA

ANTECEDENTES: no se han encontrado estudios que comparen variables psicopatológicas, incluyendo trastornos de personalidad, entre pacientes con Trastorno de pánico (TP) y Trastorno de pánico con agorafobia (TPA), y una muestra no clínica con vulnerabilidad a la ansiedad. MÉTODO: la muestra total fue de 152 participantes, 52 en la muestra de TP/TPA, 45 en la muestra no clínica con alta sensibilidad a la ansiedad (SA) y 55 en la no clínica con baja SA. Los participantes con TP/TPA fueron evaluados a través de la entrevista estructurada ADIS-IV. Administramos el Inventario Breve de Síntomas y el MCMI-III en las tres muestras. RESULTADOS: se encontraron diferencias estadísticamente significativas entre la muestra con TP/TPA y la no clínica con baja SA en todas las escalas salvo en la antisocial y compulsiva. No encontramos diferencias significativas entre la muestra con TP/TPA y la muestra no clínica con alta SA. Las únicas escalas psicopatológicas que diferencian las muestras clínica y con alta SA fueron la Ansiedad Fóbica y la Ideación Paranoide. CONCLUSIONES: nuestros resultados muestran que las personas que puntúan alto en SA, a pesar de no tener un diagnóstico de TP/TPA, son muy similares a los pacientes con TP/TPA en variables psicopatológicas y de personalidad

Psychometric properties of the Spanish version of the Panic Disorder Severity Scale

The Panic Disorder Severity Scale (PDSS) is a well-established measure of panic symptoms but few data exist on this instrument in non north-American samples. Our main goal was to assess the psychometric properties (internal consistency, test re-test reliability, inter-rater reliability, convergent and divergent validity) and the factor structure of the Spanish version. Ninety-four patients with a main diagnosis of panic disorder were assessed with the Spanish version of PDSS, the Anxiety Sensitivity Index-3 (ASI-3), the Panic and Agoraphobia Scale (PAS), the Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI), the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) the PDSS self-rating form and the Clinical Global Impression-Severity scale (CGI). The Spanish PDSS showed acceptable internal consistency (α = .74), excellent test-retest (total score and items 1-6: α > .58, p < .01) and inter-rater reliability (most intraclass correlation coefficient values for the total score were > .90) and medium to large convergent validity (r = .68, 95% CI [.54, .79], p < .01; r = .80, 95% CI [.70, .87], p < .01; r = .48, 95% CI [.28, .67], p < .01; BAI, PAS and ASI-3 total scores respectively). Data on divergent validity (BDI-II total score: r = .52, 95% CI [.34, .67], p < .01) suggest some need for refinement of the PDSS. The confirmatory factor analysis suggested a two-factor modified model for the scale (nested χ2 = 14.01, df = 12, p < .001). The Spanish PDSS has similar psychometric properties as the previous versions and is a useful instrument to assess panic symptoms in clinical settings in Spanish-speaking populations

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Brazilian Medical Association guidelines for the diagnosis and differential diagnosis of panic disorder

Objective: To present the most relevant findings regarding the Brazilian Medical Association guidelines for the diagnosis and differential diagnosis of panic disorder. Methods: We used the methodology proposed by the Brazilian Medical Association for the Diretrizes Project. The MEDLINE (PubMed), Scopus, Web of Science, and LILACS online databases were queried for articles published from 1980 to 2012. Searchable questions were structured using the PICO format (acronym for “patient” [or population], “intervention” [or exposure], “comparison” [or control], and “outcome”). Results: We present data on clinical manifestations and implications of panic disorder and its association with depression, drug abuse, dependence and anxiety disorders. In addition, discussions were held on the main psychiatric and clinical differential diagnoses. Conclusions: The guidelines are proposed to serve as a reference for the general practitioner and specialist to assist in and facilitate the diagnosis of panic disorder. .

The psychological development of panic disorder: implications for neurobiology and treatment / O desenvolvimento psicológico do transtorno de pânico: implicações para a neurobiologia e o tratamento

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to survey the available literature on psychological development of panic disorder with or without agoraphobia [PD(A)] and its relationship with the neurobiology and the treatment of panic. METHODS: Both a computerized (PubMed) and a manual search of the literature were performed. Only English papers published in peer-reviewed journals and referring to PD(A) as defined by the diagnostic classifications of the American Psychiatric Association or of the World Health Organization were included. CONCLUSIONS: A staging model of panic exists and is applicable in clinical practice. In a substantial proportion of patients with PD(A), a prodromal phase and, despite successful treatment, residual symptoms can be identified. Both prodromes and residual symptoms allow the monitoring of disorder evolution during recovery via the rollback phenomenon. The different stages of the disorder, as well as the steps of the rollback, have a correspondence in the neurobiology and in the treatment of panic. However, the treatment implications of the longitudinal model of PD(A) are not endorsed, and adequate interventions of enduring effects are missing.

OBJETIVO: O objetivo deste estudo foi fazer um levantamento da literatura disponível sobre o desenvolvimento psicológico do transtorno do pânico com ou sem agorafobia [TP(A)] e sua relação com a neurobiologia e o tratamento do pânico. MÉTODOS: A busca da literatura foi realizada tanto manualmente quanto via computador (PubMed). Somente os artigos publicados em inglês em revistas revisadas por especialistas e abordando o TP(A) de acordo com as classificações diagnósticas da Associação Americana de Psiquiatria ou da Organização Mundial de Saúde foram incluídos. CONCLUSÕES: Existe um modelo de classificação por estágios do pânico aplicável na prática clínica. A fase prodrômica e, a despeito de tratamentos bem-sucedidos, os sintomas residuais podem ser identificados em uma proporção substancial de pacientes com TP(A). Tanto os pródromos quanto os sintomas residuais permitem monitorar a evolução do transtorno durante a recuperação por meio do fenômeno de reversão. Os diferentes estágios do transtorno, bem como as etapas da reversão, possuem uma correspondência na neurobiologia e no tratamento do pânico. Contudo, as implicações do tratamento do modelo longitudinal do TP(A) não são endossadas e são necessárias intervenções adequadas de efeito duradouro.

Prevalência de transtorno de pânico em pacientes com zumbidos / The prevalence of panic disorder in patients with tinnitus

CONTEXTO: Estudos sugerem associação entre zumbidos e transtornos psiquiátricos. OBJETIVO: Identificar a presença de transtorno de pânico em uma amostra de pacientes com queixas de zumbido. MÉTODO: Foram avaliados 50 pacientes com queixa primária de zumbido de um serviço ambulatorial de otorrinolaringologia, durante um período de dois meses. A identificação de transtornos psiquiátricos e do impacto do zumbido na qualidade de vida foi feita por meio do Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI versão 5.0) e do Tinnitus Handicap Inventory. Todos os pacientes foram submetidos à avaliação audiológica e responderam a um questionário clínico-demográfico desenvolvido para este estudo. RESULTADOS: Vinte (40 por cento) pacientes apresentaram transtorno de pânico, sendo 8 com e 12 sem agorafobia; 41 (82 por cento) pacientes apresentaram pelo menos um diagnóstico psiquiátrico, sendo os mais prevalentes: transtorno de pânico (40 por cento), depressão maior (40 por cento) e transtorno de ansiedade generalizada (34 por cento). CONCLUSÃO: A prevalência de transtorno de pânico em nossa amostra de pacientes com zumbidos foi elevada, o que ratifica a importância da avaliação psiquiátrica nesses pacientes.

BACKGROUND: Many studies suggest there is an association between tinnitus and psychiatric disorders. OBJECTIVE: To identify the prevalence of panic disorder in a tinnitus patients' sample. METHOD: We evaluated 50 patients with the main complaint of tinnitus of an Otorhinolaryngology outpatient unit for two consecutive months. The evaluation of psychiatric disorders was made with the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (M.I.N.I version 5.0) and the evaluation of the tinnitus' impact was made with the Tinnitus Handicap Inventory. All patients also were submitted to an audiological evaluation and answered a clinical-demographic questionnaire elaborated for this study. RESULTS: Twenty (40 percent) patients had panic disorder, 8 with agoraphobia and 12 without agoraphobia; 41 patients (82 percent) had at least one psychiatric disorder, and the most prevalent were: panic disorder (40 percent), major depression (40 percent) and generalized anxiety disorder (34 percent). DISCUSSION: The prevalence of panic disorder in this sample of tinnitus' patients was high, which reinforces the importance of a psychiatric evaluation on these patients.

Treinamento físico intervalado como ferramenta na terapia cognitivo-comportamental do transtorno de pânico / Interval aerobic training as a tool in the cognitive-behavioral treatment of panic disorder

Este trabalho consiste no relato da utilização de um programa de exercícios físicos aeró-bicos intervalados no contexto da terapia cognitivo-comportamental em um caso de transtorno de pânico e agorafobia. São descritos os procedimentos utilizados, bem como os resultados positivos obtidos na redução da ansiedade cardíaca e na ansiedade cotidiana em relação a situações que exigem esforço físico.

The present article reports the use of an interval aerobic exercise program as an adjunct intervention in the context of cognitive behavioural therapy in a patient with panic disorder and agoraphobia. We describe the procedures used in the exercise program and also the positive results achieved regarding cardiac anxiety reduction and everyday anxiety reduction concerning activities that requested physical effort.

Can psychopharmacological treatment change personality traits in patients with panic disorder? / O tratamento psicofarmacológico pode mudar traços de personalidade em pacientes com transtorno do pânico?

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects that a particular psychopharmacological treatment has on personality patterns in patients with panic disorder. METHOD: Forty-seven patients with panic disorder and 40 controls were included in the study. The Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview and Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory were used to assess Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, diagnoses and personality traits, respectively. Patients were treated with sertraline for 16 weeks. RESULTS: There was a significant decrease in the score on 8 of the 10 Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory scales. In addition, neurotic triad and psychasthenia personality scores were higher among panic disorder patients, even during the posttreatment asymptomatic phase, than among controls. CONCLUSION: In the asymptomatic phase of the disease, panic disorder patients present a particular neurotic/anxious personality pattern. This pattern, although altered in the presence of acute symptoms, could be a focus of research.

OBJETIVO: O objetivo do estudo foi avaliar os efeitos do tratamento psicofarmacológico nos padrões de personalidade em pacientes com transtorno do pânico. MÉTODO: Quarenta e sete pacientes com transtorno do pânico e 40 controles foram incluídos no estudo. O Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview e o Inventário Multifásico Minnesota de Personalidade foram usados para avaliar os diagnósticos do Manual Diagnóstico e Estatístico de Doenças Mentais - Quarta Edição e os traços de personalidade, respectivamente. Os pacientes foram tratados com sertralina por 16 semanas. RESULTADOS: Houve uma diminuição significativa nos escores de 8 das 10 escalas do Inventário Multifásico Minnesota de Personalidade. Adicionalmente, os pacientes com transtorno do pânico apresentaram maiores escores de personalidade da tríade neurótica e de psicastenia quando comparados aos controles, mesmo após o tratamento na fase assintomática. CONCLUSÃO: Pacientes com transtorno do pânico apresentam um padrão de personalidade neurótico/ansioso na fase assintomática da doença que, mesmo que influenciado pela presença de sintomas agudos, pode ser foco de pesquisa.

Transtorno do pânico / Panic disorder

Objetivos: Revisar o transtorno do pânico (TP), considerando seus aspectos clínicos, epidemiológicos, diagnósticos e etiológicos, bem como os avanços no tratamento, uma vez que o TP é uma entidade nosológica acompanhada de importante prejuízo psíquico e funcional. Método: Foi realizada uma revisão narrativa da literatura nas principais bases de dados existentes (MEDLINE, PsychINFO e SciELO) e em livros textos atualizados. Resultados: Devido à sintomatologia predominantemente física desse transtorno, os pacientes geralmente procuram vários atendimentos clínicos até que o diagnóstico seja feito. Em função desses aspectos e da sua cronicidade, o TP está associado a elevados custos econômicos. O tratamento do TP pode ser feito com psicoterapia e/ou psicofármacos. As diversas abordagens terapêuticas são apresentadas com o nível de evidência de cada recomendação. Em virtude da cronicidade e morbidade do TP, pesquisas têm se voltado para o estudo de estratégias de prevenção já na infância. Conclusões: O TP é um transtorno crônico e com baixas taxas de remissão dos sintomas em longo prazo. Sendo assim, sugere-se que sejam delineados novos estudos para tratamento precoce dos transtornos de ansiedade ou mesmo para prevenção em crianças de risco.

Objective: To review panic disorder (PD) considering its clinical, epidemiological, diagnostic, and etiologic aspects, as well as the advances in its treatment, since PD is a nosologic entity characterized by important psychiatric and functional impairment. Method: A review of the literature was carried out using the main databases available (MEDLINE, PsychINFO and SciELO) and up-to-date textbooks. Results: Due to the prevalence of physical symptoms in this disorder, patients usually have to seek clinical care for several times before the diagnosis is established. As a result of these aspects and because of its chronicity, PD is associated with high economic costs. PD treatment may include psychotherapy and/or use of psychotropic drugs. In this review, we present several different therapeutic approaches, as well as the levels of evidence of each recommendation. Due to PD chronicity and morbidity, researches have been focused on the study of strategies to prevent PD since childhood. Conclusions: PD is a chronic disorder with low long-term remission rates. Therefore, we suggest that new studies should be designed concerning the early treatment of anxiety disorders or even the prevention of this disorder in children at risk.

Dor torácica no transtorno de pânico: sintoma somático ou manifestação de doença arterial coronariana? / Chest pain and panic disorder: physical symptom or coronary heart disease presentation?

O transtorno do pânico (TP) pertence ao grupo dos transtornos de ansiedade caracterizado por repetidos e inesperados ataques de pânico, nos quais predominam os sintomas somáticos e intensa apreensão relacionada à idéia de perda de controle ou morte iminente. Entre os sintomas somáticos que o paciente pode apresentar, a dor torácica exerce papel preponderante, reforçando a idéia de que ele esteja desenvolvendo problema cardiovascular grave, ameaçador à vida, levando à repetida busca por atendimento em unidades cardiológicas ou outros serviços de emergência. A isquemia miocárdica desenvolve-se quando o fluxo de sangue coronariano se torna inadequado para alcançar as exigências metabólicas miocárdicas e manter a função cardíaca adequada. Sua principal causa é a doença arterial coronariana (DAC) e a mais comum manifestação clínica da isquemia miocárdica é a dor torácica. Este relato de caso ilustra a comorbidade do TP com a DAC, discutindo como lidar com essa complexa situação clínica. O diagnóstico de transtorno de pânico raramente é feito e graves conseqüências podem decorrer disso, inclusive na evolução do transtorno psiquiátrico.

Panic disorder is a mental disorder that belongs to the group of the anxiety disorders, characterized by repeated and unexpected panic attacks, in which the somatic symptoms are associated to intense apprehension related to the idea of "loosing control" or an imminent death sensation. Amongst somatic symptoms that patients can present, chest pain plays an important role, reinforcing the idea that the patient is threatened by a serious cardiovascular problem, leading to repeated search for attendance in cardiologic or other emergency rooms. Myocardial ischemia develops when coronary blood flow becomes inadequate to meet the requirements of the myocardium for oxygen and metabolic substrates to maintain adequate cardiac function. Coronary stenosis is considered the main cause of myocardial ischemia and its most common clinical manifestation is chest pain. This case report illustrates panic disorder co-occurring with coronary heart disease, discussing how to deal with this complex clinical situation. The diagnosis of panic disorder seldom is made and serious consequences can elapse, including the course of the psychiatric disorder.