An updated review on pathogenic coronaviruses (CoVs) amid the emergence of SARS-CoV-2 variants: A look into the repercussions and possible solutions.

SARS-CoV-2, responsible for COVID-19, shares 79% and 50% of its identity with SARS-CoV-1 and MERS-CoV, respectively. It uses the same main cell attachment and entry receptor as SARS-CoV-1, which is the ACE-2 receptor. However, key residues in the receptor-binding domain of its S-protein seem to give it a stronger affinity for the receptor and a better ability to hide from the host immune system. Like SARS-CoV-1 and MERS-CoV, cytokine storms in critically ill COVID-19 patients cause ARDS, neurological pathology, multiorgan failure, and increased death. Though many issues remain, the global research effort and lessons from SARS-CoV-1 and MERS-CoV are hopeful. The emergence of novel SARS-CoV-2 variants and subvariants raised serious concerns among the scientific community amid the emergence of other viral diseases like monkeypox and Marburg virus, which are major concerns for healthcare settings worldwide. Hence, an updated review on the comparative analysis of various coronaviruses (CoVs) has been developed, which highlights the evolution of CoVs and their repercussions.

COVID-19 Vaccine Acceptance and Hesitancy among Migrants, Refugees, and Foreign Workers: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

Despite the effectiveness of current vaccines in reducing the spread and severity of SARS-CoV-2 infections, many people, including migrants, refugees, and foreign workers, are hesitant to be vaccinated. This systematic review and meta-analysis (SRMA) was conducted to determine the pooled prevalence estimate of the acceptance and hesitancy rates of the COVID-19 vaccine among these populations. A comprehensive search of the peer-reviewed literature indexed in PubMed, Scopus, Science Direct, and Web of Science databases was conducted. Initially, 797 potential records were identified, of which 19 articles met the inclusion criteria. A meta-analysis of proportions using data from 14 studies revealed that the overall acceptance rate of COVID vaccination among 29,152 subjects was 56.7% (95% CI: 44.9-68.5%), while the prevalence of vaccine hesitancy among 26,154 migrants reported in 12 studies was estimated to be 31.7% (95% CI: 44.9-68.5%). The acceptance rate for the COVID-19 vaccination first declined from 77.3% in 2020 to 52.9% in 2021 and then slightly increased to 56.1% in 2022. The most frequent factors influencing vaccine hesitancy were worries about vaccine efficacy and safety. Intensive vaccination campaigns should be implemented to raise vaccination awareness among migrants, which will increase the acceptance rate for the COVID-19 vaccine and result in herd immunity.

Tools to Alleviate the Drug Resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), an acid-fast bacillus that causes Tuberculosis (TB), is a pathogen that caused 1.5 million deaths in 2020. As per WHO estimates, another 4.1 million people are suffering from latent TB, either asymptomatic or not diagnosed, and the frequency of drug resistance is increasing due to intrinsically linked factors from both host and bacterium. For instance, poor access to TB diagnosis and reduced treatment in the era of the COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in more TB deaths and an 18% reduction in newly diagnosed cases of TB. Additionally, the detection of Mtb isolates exhibiting resistance to multiple drugs (MDR, XDR, and TDR) has complicated the scenario in the pathogen's favour. Moreover, the conventional methods to detect drug resistance may miss mutations, making it challenging to decide on the treatment regimen. However, owing to collaborative initiatives, the last two decades have witnessed several advancements in both the detection methods and drug discovery against drug-resistant isolates. The majority of them belong to nucleic acid detection techniques. In this review, we highlight and summarize the molecular mechanism underlying drug resistance in Mtb, the recent advancements in resistance detection methods, and the newer drugs used against drug-resistant TB.

Crusted Scabies, a Neglected Tropical Disease: Case Series and Literature Review.

Crusted scabies is a rare form of scabies that presents with more severe symptoms than those of classic scabies. It is characterized by large crusted lesions, extensive scales, thick hyperkeratosis, and contains a large number of highly contagious itch mites. Crusted scabies is more prevalent in immunocompromised, malnourished, and disabled individuals. This disease has been linked to a variety of health problems, including delayed diagnosis, infection risk, and high mortality, mainly from sepsis, and it has the potential to cause an outbreak due to its hyper-infestation, which makes it highly infectious. This article reports three cases of crusted scabies in North Sulawesi, Indonesia. Recent updates and a comprehensive review of the literature on the disease are also included, emphasizing the critical importance of early diagnosis and effective medical management of patients, which are necessary to prevent the complications and spread in communities.

Hepatitis E virus in pigs and the environment: An updated review of public health concerns.

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is an important public health problem and is responsible for both acute and chronic viral hepatitis. Public health implications of HEV are derived from its transmission route, either water-borne or food-borne, and its zoonotic potential. Not only in developing countries, but HEV cases are also found in a high number in developed countries. The spread of HEV to the environment might pollute surface waters, which could act as the source of infection for both humans and animals. Identification of the virus in animal products suggests the circulation of HEV within water and food chains. High seroprevalence and circulation of HEV in livestock, in particular pigs, as well as in environmental samples warrants further investigation into pig markets. HEV virulence in different environments and meat supply chains could shed light on the possible sources of infection in humans and the degree of occupational risk. The purpose of this review is to discuss HEV infections with an emphasis on livestock- and environment-related risk factors, and food-borne, water-borne, and zoonotic transmissions.

ESBL expression and antibiotic resistance patterns in a hospital in Saudi Arabia: Do healthcare staff have the whole picture?

BACKGROUND: We analyse the distribution of ESBL infections in Dammam Medical Complex, Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia with respect to patient demographics, wards, infection site, bacterial species, and antibiotic resistance. We also gauged hospital staff understanding of ESBLs, the procedures in place to identify, treat and infections containing. METHODS: Hospital records from 2016 were analysed and 352 ESBL from several samples types were identified using VITEK® 2 system and by phenotypic confirmation using a disk diffusion test. HCWs attitudes and knowledge were assessed using a paper questionnaire. RESULTS: The percentage of ESBL isolates were Klebsiella pneumoniae(n=148; 42.1%) or Escherichia coli(n=176; 50%), Proteus mirabilis(n=7; 2%), Morganella morganii(n=13; 3.7%), Enterobacter (n=7; 2%) and Citrobacter freundii (n=1; 0.3%). Overall tigecycline susceptibility was 82.2%, however P. mirabilis and M. morganii isolates were uniformly resistant and K. pneumoniae susceptibility levels were significantly lower than for E. coli in urine samples (72.3% v 100%; Chi square=13.76, p=0.0002); for blood samples there was also apparently higher resistance among K. pneumoniae isolates. Overall susceptibility to the carbapenems imipenem, meropenem and ertapenam was high. There were overall high levels of uncertainty among healthcare workers on hospital policies on reporting or prescribing with respect to ESBL-expressing infections. CONCLUSIONS: ESBL control strategies should consider variations among sample types, wards, and antibiotic resistance variability. There is a need to specifically address staff training and communication procedures for infection prevention and control with respect to ESBLs.

A review of candidate therapies for Middle East respiratory syndrome from a molecular perspective.

There have been 2040 laboratory-confirmed cases of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) in 27 countries, with a mortality rate of 34.9 %. There is no specific therapy. The current therapies have mainly been adapted from severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS-CoV) treatments, including broad-spectrum antibiotics, corticosteroids, interferons, ribavirin, lopinavir-ritonavir or mycophenolate mofetil, and have not been subject to well-organized clinical trials. The development of specific therapies and vaccines is therefore urgently required. We examine existing and potential therapies and vaccines from a molecular perspective. These include viral S protein targeting; inhibitors of host proteases, including TMPRSS2, cathepsin L and furin protease, and of viral M(pro) and the PL(pro) proteases; convalescent plasma; and vaccine candidates. The Medline database was searched using combinations and variations of terms, including 'Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus', 'MERS-CoV', 'SARS', 'therapy', 'molecular', 'vaccine', 'prophylactic', 'S protein', 'DPP4', 'heptad repeat', 'protease', 'inhibitor', 'anti-viral', 'broad-spectrum', 'interferon', 'convalescent plasma', 'lopinavir ritonavir', 'antibodies', 'antiviral peptides' and 'live attenuated viruses'. There are many options for the development of MERS-CoV-specific therapies. Currently, MERS-CoV is not considered to have pandemic potential. However, the high mortality rate and potential for mutations that could increase transmissibility give urgency to the search for direct, effective therapies. Well-designed and controlled clinical trials are needed, both for existing therapies and for prospective direct therapies.

Questionnaire-based analysis of infection prevention and control in healthcare facilities in Saudi Arabia in regards to Middle East Respiratory Syndrome.

Effective implementation of infection prevention and control in healthcare facilities depends on training, awareness and compliance of healthcare workers. In Saudi Arabia recent significant hospital outbreaks, including Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV), have resulted from lack of, or breakdown in, infection prevention and control procedures. This study was designed to assess attitudes to, and awareness of, infection prevention and control policies and guidelines among healthcare workers of different professions and institution types in Saudi Arabia. A questionnaire was administered to 607 healthcare workers including physicians (n=133), nurses (n=162), laboratory staff (n=233) and other staff (n=79) in government hospitals, private hospitals and poly clinics. Results were compared using Chi square analysis according to profession type, institution type, age group and nationality (Saudi or non-Saudi) to assess variability. Responses suggested that there are relatively high levels of uncertainty among healthcare workers across a range of infection prevention and control issues, including institution-specific issues, surveillance and reporting standards, and readiness and competence to implement policies and respond to outbreaks. There was evidence to suggest that staff in private hospitals and nurses were more confident than other staff types. Carelessness of healthcare workers was the top-cited factor contributing to causes of outbreaks (65.07% of total group), and hospital infrastructure and design was the top-cited factor contributing to spread of infection in the hospital (54.20%), followed closely by lack and shortage of staff (53.71%) and no infection control training program (51.73%). An electronic surveillance system was considered the most effective by staff (81.22%). We have identified areas of concern among healthcare workers in Saudi Arabia on infection prevention and control which vary between institutions and among different professions. This merits urgent multi-factorial actions to try to ensure outbreaks such as MERS-CoV can be minimized and contained.

Safety of intradermal Bacillus Calmette-Guerin vaccine for neonates in Eastern Saudi Arabia.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the safety of Bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG) in Saudi infants and outline our management for BCG related lymphadenitis. METHODS: The records of infants who developed BCG related complications were retrospectively reviewed from March 2008 to March 2011 at the Maternity and Children Hospital, Dammam, Saudi Arabia for age, gender, birth weight, presentation, and outcome. All our patients were immunized with the BCG vaccine within 48 hours after birth, and the total number of vaccinated newborns was obtained from the vaccination registry. RESULTS: During a 3-year period (March 2008 to March 2011), 26,000 newborns received BCG and 81 (51 males and 30 females) developed complications. This gives an incidence of 3.12 complications/1000 newborns. Their presentations were: left axillary lymphadenitis (n=62), supraclavicular lymphadenitis (n=9), collection at immunization site (n=6), and one each (left cervical lymphadenitis, bilateral axillary lymphadenitis, left arm abscess, left axillary lymphadenitis and collection at immunization site). Two were immunocompromized and 6 with local collection were aspirated. The arm abscess had drainage. Simple lymphadenitis (n=6) were treated expectantly, while those with suppurative lymphadenitis (n=68) had excision (n=65) or incision and drainage (n=3) without anti-tuberculous treatment. CONCLUSION: Bacillus Calmette-Guerin is safe but is associated with a relatively high incidence of suppurative lymphadenitis. Non-suppurative lymphadenitis can be treated conservatively, while suppurative lymphadenitis should be treated with excision. This is safe, avoids rupture, and shortens the recovery period without anti-tuberculous treatment. Although, the use of BCG vaccine may be associated with side effects, the potential morbidity and mortality from tuberculosis outweighs that from BCG related complications.