Three-component NiO/Fe3O4/rGO nanostructure as an electrode material towards supercapacitor and alcohol electrooxidation.

A nanocomposite made of nickel oxide and iron oxide (NiO/Fe3O4) and its hybrid with reduced graphene oxide (rGO) as a conductive substrate with a highly functional surface (NiO/Fe3O4/rGO) was synthesized using a simple hydrothermal approach. This study addresses the challenge of developing efficient materials for energy storage and alcohol fuel cells. After confirming the synthesis through structural analysis, the potential of these nanocomposites as supercapacitor electrodes and catalysts for methanol and ethanol oxidation in alcohol fuel cells were evaluated. The synergy of combining the two metal oxides and adding rGO to the composite structure led to excellent electrocatalytic activity in alcohol oxidation. For the modified NiO/Fe3O4/rGO electrode in the methanol oxidation reaction (MOR), a current density of 450 mA/cm2 at 0.67 V and excellent catalyst stability of 98.7 % over 20 h in chronoamperometric analysis were observed. In the ethanol oxidation reaction (EOR), an oxidative current of 235 mA/cm2 at a peak potential of 0.76 V was seen, with catalyst stability of 96.4 % after 20 h. As a supercapacitor electrode, the NiO/Fe3O4 composite demonstrated a specific capacitance of 946 F/g, while NiO/Fe3O4/rGO showed 1155 F/g. The stability of these electrodes after 10000 GCD cycles was 83.6 % and 90.6 %, respectively. These findings suggest that the proposed structures are cost-effective and reliable alternatives for energy storage and production, suitable for alcohol fuel cells and supercapacitors.

NiO/MnO2coated on carbon felt as an electrode material for supercapacitor applications.

Transition metal oxides have demonstrated excellent capability for charge storage when used in supercapacitor electrodes. This study undertook the hydrothermal synthesis of bimetallic nickel and manganese oxide (NiO/MnO2) on a carbon-felt (CF) substrate. NiO/MnO2/CF electrode was characterized and examined in a three-electrode system in a potassium hydroxide electrolyte. Cyclic voltammetry, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, and galvanostatic charge-discharge analyses revealed Faradaic behavior during charge storage, a specific capacity of 1627 F g-1, and a stability of 96.8% after 5000 consecutive charge-discharge cycles. Subsequent investigations were conducted in a two-electrode system for constructing a symmetrical supercapacitor using the NiO/MnO2/CF electrode. The energy and power densities were determined as 43Wh kg-1and 559 W kg-1. Additionally, the stability of the constructed supercapacitor device was examined over 5000 consecutive cycles, verifying a 92% stability through charge-discharge cycles. Finally, the fabricated supercapacitor was utilized to power an LED lamp, successfully maintaining the illumination for 53 s.

Electrochemical oxidation of ethanol on NiO/MoO2hybridized wheat husk derived activated carbon.

The ethanol oxidation process in fuel cells is most efficient when conducted by platinum based catalysts. Our research team endeavored to find affordable and efficient catalysts, synthesizing catalysts based on metal oxides of nickel and molybdenum in the form of NiO/MoO2and NiO/MoO2hybridized with activated carbon obtained from the wheat husk (ACWH) through a hydrothermal method. After precise physical characterization, the capability of these catalysts in the ethanol oxidation process was measured through electrochemical analyses in an alkaline environment. The presence of ACWH in the catalyst structure significantly improves the active surface and electrocatalytic activity. NiO/MoO2/ACWH with a current density of 16 mA cm-2at a peak potential of 0.55 V and 93% cyclic stability after 5000 alternate CV cycles, can be an appealing, relatively efficient, and stable option in ethanol oxidation.

MoO3/WO3/rGO as electrode material for supercapacitor and catalyst for methanol and ethanol electrooxidation.

The potential of metal oxides in electrochemical energy storage encouraged our research team to synthesize molybdenum oxide/tungsten oxide nanocomposites (MoO3/WO3) and their hybrid with reduced graphene oxide (rGO), in the form of MoO3/WO3/rGO as a substrate with relatively good electrical conductivity and suitable electrochemical active surface. In this context, we presented the electrochemical behavior of these nanocomposites as an electrode for supercapacitors and as a catalyst in the oxidation process of methanol/ethanol. Our engineered samples were characterized by X-ray diffraction pattern and scanning electron microscopy. As a result, MoO3/WO3 and MoO3/WO3/rGO indicated specific capacitances of 452 and 583 F/g and stability of 88.9% and 92.6% after 2000 consecutive GCD cycles, respectively. Also, MoO3/WO3 and MoO3/WO3/rGO nanocatalysts showed oxidation current densities of 117 and 170 mA/cm2 at scan rate of 50 mV/s, and stability of 71 and 89%, respectively in chronoamperometry analysis, in the MOR process. Interestingly, in the ethanol oxidation process, corresponding oxidation current densities of 42 and 106 mA/cm2 and stability values of 70 and 82% were achieved. MoO3/WO3 and MoO3/WO3/rGO can be attractive options paving the way for prospective alcohol-based fuel cells.

Electrocatalytic Performance of MnMoO4-rGO Nano-Electrocatalyst for Methanol and Ethanol Oxidation.

Today, finding low-cost electro-catalysts for methanol and ethanol oxidation with high performance and stability is one of the new research topics. A nanocatalyst based on metal oxides in the form of MnMoO4 was synthesized by a hydrothermal method for methanol (MOR) and ethanol (EOR) oxidation reactions. Adding reduced graphene oxide (rGO) to the catalyst structure improved the electrocatalytic activity of MnMoO4 for the oxidation processes. The crystal structure and morphology of the MnMoO4 and MnMoO4-rGO nanocatalysts were investigated by physical analyses such as scanning electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction. Their abilities for MOR and EOR processes in an alkaline medium were evaluated by performing electrochemical tests such as cyclic voltammetry, chronoamperometry, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. MnMoO4-rGO showed oxidation current densities of 60.59 and 25.39 mA/cm2 and peak potentials of 0.62 and 0.67 V in MOR and EOR processes (at a scan rate of 40 mV/s), respectively. Moreover, stabilities of 91.7% in MOR and 88.6% in EOR processes were obtained from the chronoamperometry analysis within 6 h. All these features make MnMoO4-rGO a promising electrochemical catalyst for the oxidation of alcohols.

Transition-Metal Dichalcogenides in Electrochemical Batteries and Solar Cells.

The advent of new nanomaterials has resulted in dramatic developments in the field of energy production and storage. Due to their unique structure and properties, transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs) are the most promising from the list of materials recently introduced in the field. The amazing progress in the use TMDs for energy storage and production inspired us to review the recent research on TMD-based catalysts and electrode materials. In this report, we examine TMDs in a variety of electrochemical batteries and solar cells with special focus on MoS2 as the most studied and used TMD material.

Methanol and Ethanol Electrooxidation on ZrO2/NiO/rGO.

Recently, transition metal oxides have been considered for various applications due to their unique properties. We present the synthesis of a three-component catalyst consisting of zirconium oxide (ZrO2), nickel oxide (NiO), and reduced graphene oxide (rGO) in the form of ZrO2/NiO/rGO by a simple one-step hydrothermal method. X-ray powder diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscope (SEM), and bright-field transmission electron microscopy (BF-TEM) analyses were performed to accurately characterize the catalysts. Cyclic voltammetry (CV), electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), and linear sweep voltammetry (LSV) analyses were also carried out to investigate the methanol and ethanol alcohol electrooxidation ability of the synthesized nanocatalysts. Inspired by the good potential of metal oxides in the field of catalysts, especially in fuel-cell anodes, we investigated the capability of this catalyst in the methanol oxidation reaction (MOR) and ethanol oxidation reaction (EOR). After proving the successful synthesis and examining the surface morphology of these materials, detailed electrochemical tests were performed to show the outstanding capability of this new nanocatalyst for use in the anode of alcohol fuel cells. ZrO2/NiO/rGO indicated a current density of 26.6 mA/cm2 at a peak potential of 0.52 V and 99.5% cyclic stability in the MOR and a current density of 17.3 mA/cm2 at a peak potential of 0.52 V and 98.5% cyclic stability in the EOR (at optimal concentration/scan rate 20 mV/s), representing an attractive option for use in the anode of alcoholic fuel cells.

MnCo2O4/NiCo2O4/rGO as a Catalyst Based on Binary Transition Metal Oxide for the Methanol Oxidation Reaction.

The demands for alternative energy have led researchers to find effective electrocatalysts in fuel cells and increase the efficiency of existing materials. This study presents new nanocatalysts based on two binary transition metal oxides (BTMOs) and their hybrid with reduced graphene oxide for methanol oxidation. Characterization of the introduced three-component composite, including cobalt manganese oxide (MnCo2O4), nickel cobalt oxide (NiCo2O4), and reduced graphene oxide (rGO) in the form of MnCo2O4/NiCo2O4/rGO (MNR), was investigated by X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscope (SEM), and energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) analyses. The alcohol oxidation capability of MnCo2O4/NiCo2O4 (MN) and MNR was evaluated in the methanol oxidation reaction (MOR) process. The crucial role of rGO in improving the electrocatalytic properties of catalysts stems from its large active surface area and high electrical conductivity. The alcohol oxidation tests of MN and MNR showed an adequate ability to oxidize methanol. The better performance of MNR was due to the synergistic effect of MnCo2O4/NiCo2O4 and rGO. MN and MNR nanocatalysts, with a maximum current density of 14.58 and 24.76 mA/cm2 and overvoltage of 0.6 and 0.58 V, as well as cyclic stability of 98.3% and 99.7% (at optimal methanol concentration/scan rate of 20 mV/S), respectively, can be promising and inexpensive options in the field of efficient nanocatalysts for use in methanol fuel cell anodes.

Fabrication of Mn3O4-CeO2-rGO as Nanocatalyst for Electro-Oxidation of Methanol.

Recently, the use of metal oxides as inexpensive and efficient catalysts has been considered by researchers. In this work, we introduce a new nanocatalyst including a mixed metal oxide, consisting of manganese oxide, cerium oxide, and reduced graphene oxide (Mn3O4-CeO2-rGO) by the hydrothermal method. The synthesized nanocatalyst was evaluated for the methanol oxidation reaction. The synergetic effect of metal oxides on the surface of rGO was investigated. Mn3O4-CeO2-rGO showed an oxidation current density of 17.7 mA/cm2 in overpotential of 0.51 V and 91% stability after 500 consecutive rounds of cyclic voltammetry. According to these results, the synthesized nanocatalyst can be an attractive and efficient option in the methanol oxidation reaction process.

Electrochemical Sensor Based on ZnFe2O4/RGO Nanocomposite for Ultrasensitive Detection of Hydrazine in Real Samples.

We have developed a highly sensitive sensor of ZnFe2O4/reduced graphene oxide (ZnFe2O4/RGO) nanocomposite for electrochemical detection of hydrazine, fabricated by a simple hydrothermal protocol. Subsequently, a screen-printed electrode (SPE) surface was modified with the proposed nanocomposite (ZnFe2O4/RGO/SPE), and revealed an admirable electrocatalytic capacity for hydrazine oxidation. The ZnFe2O4/RGO/SPE sensor could selectively determine micromolar hydrazine concentrations. The as-produced sensor demonstrated excellent ability to detect hydrazine due to the synergistic impacts of the unique electrocatalytic capacity of ZnFe2O4 plus the potent physicochemical features of RGO such as manifold catalytic sites, great area-normalized edge-plane structures, high conductivity, and large surface area. The hydrazine detection using differential pulse voltammetry exhibited a broad linear dynamic range (0.03-610.0 µM) with a low limit of detection (0.01 µM).

Green Synthesis of Zeolitic Imidazolate Frameworks: A Review of Their Characterization and Industrial and Medical Applications.

Metal organic frameworks (MOF) are a class of hybrid networks of supramolecular solid materials comprising a large number of inorganic and organic linkers, all bound to metal ions in a well-organized fashion. Zeolitic imidazolate frameworks (ZIFs) are a sub-group of MOFs with imidazole as an organic linker to metals; it is rich in carbon, nitrogen, and transition metals. ZIFs combine the classical zeolite characteristics of thermal and chemical stability with pore-size tunability and the rich topological diversity of MOFs. Due to the energy crisis and the existence of organic solvents that lead to environmental hazards, considerable research efforts have been devoted to devising clean and sustainable synthesis routes for ZIFs to reduce the environmental impact of their preparation. Green chemistry is the key to sustainable development, as it will lead to new solutions to existing problems. Moreover, it will present opportunities for new processes and products and, at its heart, is scientific and technological innovation. The green chemistry approach seeks to redesign the materials that make up the basis of our society and our economy, including the materials that generate, store, and transport our energy, in ways that are benign for humans and the environment and that possess intrinsic sustainability. This study covers the principles of green chemistry as used in designing strategies for synthesizing greener, less toxic ZIFs the consume less energy to produce. First, the necessity of green methods in today's society, their replacement of the usual non-green methods and their benefits are discussed; then, various methods for the green synthesis of ZIF compounds, such as hydrothermally, ionothermally, and by the electrospray technique, are considered. These methods use the least harmful and toxic substances, especially concerning organic solvents, and are also more economical. When a compound is synthesized by a green method, a question arises as to whether these compounds can replace the same compounds as synthesized by non-green methods. For example, is the thermal stability of these compounds (which is one of the most important features of ZIFs) preserved? Therefore, after studying the methods of identifying these compounds, in the last part, there is an in-depth discussion on the various applications of these green-synthesized compounds.

Screen-Printed Electrode Surface Modification with NiCo2O4/RGO Nanocomposite for Hydroxylamine Detection.

We developed a novel hydroxylamine sensor through the surface modification of screen-printed electrode (SPE) with NiCo2O4 nanoparticles/reduced graphene oxide (RGO) nanocomposite (NiCo2O4/RGO/SPE). We assessed the electrochemical response of hydroxylamine on the as-fabricated sensor, confirming the high electrocatalytic impact of hydroxylamine oxidation. The electrode produced sensitively responded to hydroxylamine under optimized conditions, with a low limit of detection (2.0 nM) and broad linear dynamic range (0.007-385.0 µM). The presence of NiCo2O4 combined with the modification of RGO resulted in sensitive detection and signal amplification of hydroxylamine oxidation. The proposed sensor was used to determine the existence of hydroxylamine in water samples.

Graphene-Silicon Device for Visible and Infrared Photodetection.

The fabrication of a graphene-silicon (Gr-Si) junction involves the formation of a parallel metal-insulator-semiconductor (MIS) structure, which is often disregarded but plays an important role in the optoelectronic properties of the device. In this work, the transfer of graphene onto a patterned n-type Si substrate, covered by Si3N4, produces a Gr-Si device, in which the parallel MIS consists of a Gr-Si3N4-Si structure surrounding the Gr-Si junction. The Gr-Si device exhibits rectifying behavior with a rectification ratio up to 104. The investigation of its temperature behavior is necessary to accurately estimate the Schottky barrier height (SBH) at zero bias, φb0 = 0.24 eV, the effective Richardson's constant, A* = 7 × 10-10 AK-2 cm-2, and the diode ideality factor n = 2.66 of the Gr-Si junction. The device is operated as a photodetector in both photocurrent and photovoltage mode in the visible and infrared (IR) spectral regions. A responsivity of up to 350 mA/W and an external quantum efficiency (EQE) of up to 75% are achieved in the 500-1200 nm wavelength range. Decreases in responsivity to 0.4 mA/W and EQE to 0.03% are observed above 1200 nm, which is in the IR region beyond the silicon optical band gap, in which photoexcitation is driven by graphene. Finally, a model based on two parallel and opposite diodes, one for the Gr-Si junction and the other for the Gr-Si3N4-Si MIS structure, is proposed to explain the electrical behavior of the Gr-Si device.

Enhanced electrochemical performance of MnNi2O4/rGO nanocomposite as pseudocapacitor electrode material and methanol electro-oxidation catalyst.

Binary transition metal oxides with encouraging electrocatalyst properties have been suggested as electrode materials for supercapacitors and methanol oxidation. Hence, in this work, a binary mixed metal oxide based on nickel and manganese (MnNi2O4) and its hybrid with reduced graphene oxide were synthesized by a one-step hydrothermal method. After physical and morphological characterization, the potential of these nanostructures was investigated for use as supercapacitor electrodes and methanol electro-oxidation. The results of the electrochemical analysis showed a substantial effect of adding rGO to the MnNi2O4. The MnNi2O4/rGO hybrid electrode supercapacitor exhibited good stability of 93% after 2000 consecutive CV cycles and a specific capacitance of 575 F g-1at the current density of 0.5 A g-1. Furthermore, the application of this hybrid nanomaterial in the methanol electro-oxidation reaction (MOR) indicated its appropriate electrochemical efficiency and stability in methanol oxidation. Our results show that MnNi2O4/rGO can be considered as a promising electrode material for energy applications.

Novel proton conducting core-shell PAMPS-PVBS@Fe2TiO5 nanoparticles as a reinforcement for SPEEK based membranes.

In this study, new nanocomposite membranes from sulfonated poly (ether ether ketone) (SPEEK) and proton-conducting Fe2TiO5 nanoparticles are prepared by the solution casting method. Sulfonated core-shell Fe2TiO5 nanoparticles are synthesized by redox polymerization. Therefore, 4-Vinyl benzene sulfonate (VBS) and 2-acrylamide-2-methyl-1-propane sulfonic acid (AMPS) are grafted on the surface of nanoparticles through radical polymerization. The different amounts of hybrid nanoparticles (PAMPS@Fe2TiO5 and PVBS@Fe2TiO5) are incorporated into the SPEEK matrix. The results show higher proton conductivity for all prepared nanocomposites than that of the SPEEK membrane. Embedding the sulfonated Fe2TiO5 nanoparticles into the SPEEK membrane improves proton conductivity by creating the new proton conducting sites. Besides, the nanocomposite membranes showed improved mechanical and dimensional stability in comparison with that of the SPEEK membrane. Also, the membranes including 2 wt% of PAMPS@Fe2TiO5 and PVBS@Fe2TiO5 nanoparticles indicate the maximum power density of 247 mW cm-2 and 226 mW cm-2 at 80 °C, respectively, which is higher than that of for the pristine membrane. Our prepared membranes have the potential for application in polymer electrolyte fuel cells.

Electrochemical determination of rutin by using NiFe2O4 nanoparticles-loaded reduced graphene oxide.

A binary transition metal oxide containing nickel and iron (NiFe2O4) and hybridization of this nanomaterial with reduced graphene oxide (rGO) are synthesized by the hydrothermal method. X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Raman spectroscopy confirm the successful synthesis of these materials. Also, scanning electron microscope (SEM) and transmission electron microscope (TEM) images illustrated the particle morphology with the particle size of 20 nm. The synthesized material is then examined as a sensor on the surface of the glassy carbon electrode to detect a very small amount of rutin. Some electrochemical tests such as cyclic voltammetry, differential pulse voltammetry (DPV), and impedance spectroscopy indicate the remarkable accuracy of this sensor and its operation in a relatively wide range of concentrations of rutin (100 nM-100 µM). The accuracy of the proposed electrochemical sensors is approximately 100 nM in 0.1 M PBS, (pH = 3) which is relatively impressive and can be reported. Also, the stability rate after 100 DPV was about 95 %, which is a considerable and relatively excellent value. Considering the very good results, it seems that the NiFe2O4-rGO can be considered as a new proposal in the development of accurate and inexpensive electrochemical sensors.

Synergistic effect of MoS2 and Fe3O4 decorated reduced graphene oxide as a ternary hybrid for high-performance and stable asymmetric supercapacitors.

Today, two-dimensional materials for use in energy devices have attracted the attention of researchers. Molybdenum disulfide is promising as an electrode material with unique physical properties and a high exposed surface area. However, there are still problems that need to be addressed. In this study, we prepared a hybrid containing MoS2, Fe3O4, and reduced graphene oxide (rGO) by a two-step hydrothermal method. This nanocomposite is well structurally and morphologically identified, and its electrochemical performance is then evaluated for use in supercapacitors. According to the galvanostatic charge-discharge results, this nanocomposite shows a good specific capacity, equivalent to 527 F g-1 at 0.5 mA cm-2. The results of the multi-cycle stability test (5000 cycles) indicate a significant stability rate capability, with 93% of the electrode capacity remaining after 5000 cycles. The reason for this could be the synergistic effect between rGO and MoS2 as well as between molybdenum and iron in the faradic reaction in the charge storage process. Fe3O4 and MoS2 provide electroactive sites for the faradic process and electrolyte accessibility and rGO supply conductivity.

Binary mixed molybdenum cobalt sulfide nanosheets decorated on rGO as a high-performance supercapacitor electrode.

This work represents the production of MoS2/CoS2 hybridized with rGO as a material for high-performance supercapacitors. The hydrothermal method is used for the synthesis. The as-prepared material is characterized by x-ray diffraction spectroscopy, x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and electron microscopy. The size of the nanoparticles is estimated at 80 nm, and their uniform dispersion on rGO is observed from electron microscopy images. A high-specific capacitance of 190 mF cm-2 obtains for MoS2/CoS2/rGO at the current density of 0.5 mA cm-2 in 2 M KOH. The cyclic stability over 5000 cycles at a scan rate of 100 mV s-1 shows that the MoS2/CoS2/rGO electrode is stable, and 88.6% of its initial capacitance sustains at the end of 5000 cycles. This excellent performance is assigned to the synergistic effect of rGO and MoS2/CoS2. This electrode with excellent stability and capacitance could be a potential candidate for supercapacitor electrode materials.

Fe3O4@MoS2/RGO as an effective nano-electrocatalyst toward electrochemical hydrogen evolution reaction and methanol oxidation in two settings for fuel cell application.

A three-component nano-electrocatalyst, magnetite coated molybdenum disulfide hybridized with reduced graphene oxide (Fe3O4@MoS2/RGO), is synthesized by a two-step hydrothermal method. This catalyst is applied as an effective substitution for the platinum catalyst in methanol oxidation and hydrogen evolution reactions. Cyclic voltammetry, chronoamperometry, and linear sweep voltammetry are used to evaluate the performance of the electrocatalyst in acidic and basic media. The results of methanol oxidation reaction on the hybridized nano-electrocatalyst showed good electrocatalytic properties with considerable diffusion currents. This fact is confirmed by the Tafel plots and the calculated kinetic parameters of electron transfer. Fe3O4@MoS2/RGO showed an anodic transfer coefficient and exchange current of 0.464 and 4.80 × 10-8, respectively that are higher than Fe3O4/RGO. The presence of the porous MoS2 in catalyst has a key effect on supplying electroactive sites for electron transfer. Also, the high actual surface area obtained for the hybridized nano-electrocatalyst (A = 0.0295 cm2). The maximum power density of 35.03 mW cm-2 obtained for a single cell containing the prepared hybridized catalyst as the anode which shows a competitive feature of the synthetic catalyst compared to other reports. Furthermore, the synthetic catalyst shows the low-value overpotential of 108 mV and Tafel slope of 48 mV dec-1 during the hydrogen evolution process in acidic media. This is attributed to the synergistic effect between Fe3O4 and MoS2 and also increase the electron transfer rate due to adding conductive RGO to the catalyst. The results show that the synthetic nanocatalyst can have promising applications for hydrogen evolution and methanol oxidation reactions.

Molecular detection of Leishmania parasites and host blood meal identification in wild sand flies from a new endemic rural region, south of Iran.

Zoonotic Cutaneous Leishmaniosis (ZCL) remains the most crucial vector-borne public health disease particularly in endemic rural parts of Iran. The main aim of this study is to identify wild sand flies (Diptera: Psychodidae), determine their infection rate, and differentiate their host blood meal sources using the polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) technique. Sand fly populations were caught with sticky paper traps from 10 different villages in the county of Darab, Fars province, southern Iran. Following their species identification, they were used in one step PCR to determine their infection with Leishmania spp. parasites. They were then subjected to PCR-RFLP protocol to identify and differentiate their blood meal sources. Two genera of Phlebotomus and Sergentomyia comprising 13 species of sand flies were identified in this region. From a total of 150 parous female sand flies, encompassing 4 different medically important species, 7 specimens (4.7%) including 6 Phlebotomus papatasi and 1 Phlebotomus bergeroti were infected with Leishmania major. Molecular data indicated that about 32% of female sand flies fed on man, while nearly 43% fed on rodent and canine hosts. Molecular detection is an efficient way of differentiating the source of blood meals in female sand flies feeding on different vertebrate hosts. It is suggested that P. papatasi is not highly anthropophagic and appears to be an opportunistic feeder on man. This species is, however, the primary vector of ZCL in this region.