Factors associated with delays in medical and surgical open facial fracture management.

Objectives: Open fractures are at risk of infection because of exposure of bone and tissue to the environment. Facial fractures are often accompanied by other severe injuries, and therefore fracture management may be delayed until after stabilization. Previous studies in this area have examined timing of multiple facets of care but have tended to report on each in isolation (eg, antibiotic initiation). Methods: This was a retrospective study of adult patients admitted to five trauma centers from January 1, 2017 to March 31, 2021 with open facial fractures. Variables collected included demographics, injury mechanism, details on facial and non-facial injuries, facial fracture management (irrigation and debridement (I&D), irrigation without debridement, open reduction internal fixation (ORIF), antibiotics), and other hospital events. The study hypothesized that the presence of serious non-facial injuries would be associated with delays in facial fracture management. The primary aims were to describe open facial fracture management practices and examine factors associated with early versus delayed fracture management. A secondary aim was to describe infection rates. Early treatment was defined as within 24 hours of arrival for I&D, irrigation without debridement, and ORIF and within 1 hour for antibiotics. Results: A total of 256 patients were included. Twenty-seven percent had major trauma (Injury Severity Score ≥16). The presence of serious head injury/traumatic brain injury was associated with delayed I&D (ORearly=0.04, p<0.01), irrigation without debridement (ORearly=0.09, p<0.01), and ORIF (ORearly=0.10, p<0.01). Going to the OR within 24 hours was associated with early I&D (ORearly=377.26, p<0.01), irrigation without debridement (ORearly=13.54, p<0.01), and ORIF (ORearly=154.92, p<0.01). The infection rate was 4%. Conclusions: In this examination of multiple aspects of open facial fracture management, serious injuries to non-facial regions led to delays in surgical fracture management, consistent with the study hypothesis. Level of evidence: Level III, prognostic/epidemiological.

Chronic cholecystitis in the pediatric population: an underappreciated disease process.

AIM: We hypothesize that chronic cholecystitis accounts for the majority of inflammatory diseases in the pediatric population and it is difficult to predict with preoperative ultrasound. BACKGROUND: Despite the increase in gallbladder disease, there is a paucity of data on pediatric cholecystitis. Most pediatric studies focus on cholelithiasis and biliary dyskinesia rather than inflammatory gallbladder disease. METHODS: We performed a single center retrospective review of all patients who underwent cholecystectomy from 1/1/10 - 1/1/15. Relevant data was extracted, including age, sex, acute vs. chronic presentation, duration of symptoms, preoperative imaging findings, and surgical pathology results. RESULTS: Out of the 170 patients identified, there were 129 (75.9%) females and 41 (24.1%) males. The average age was 14 years (range 4-23 years). Seventy-six patients presented with acute symptoms with an average duration of pain of 2 days. Ninety-four patients presented with chronic symptoms and had an average duration of pain of 7.4 months. Eight patients (4.7%) had preoperative ultrasound that suggested inflammation, while the remaining showed only cholelithiasis. Pathology revealed chronic cholecystitis in 148 (87.1%). Among those who had pathologic evidence of chronic cholecystitis, preoperative inflammation was seen in only 5 patients (3.3%). CONCLUSION: Chronic cholecystitis accounts for the majority of pediatric inflammatory diseases. These data suggest that most pediatric patients experience episodes of inflammation prior to cholecystectomy. Underappreciated gallbladder inflammation may delay surgical referral, increase emergency department and primary doctor visits, and lead to more difficult operations. Surgeons should consider early cholecystectomy when cholelithiasis and symptoms are present.

Probiotic Lactobacillus Species Strengthen Intestinal Barrier Function and Tight Junction Integrity in Experimental Necrotizing Enterocolitis.

Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is a serious intestinal disease that occurs in newborn infants. It is associated with major morbidity and affects 5% of all infants admitted to neonatal intensive care units. Probiotics have variable efficacy in preventing necrotizing enterocolitis. Tight junctions (TJ) are protein complexes that maintain epithelial barrier integrity. We hypothesized that the probiotics Lactobacillus rhamnosus and Lactobacillus plantarum strengthen intestinal barrier function, promote TJ integrity, and protect against experimental NEC. Both an in vitro and an in vivo experimental model of NEC were studied. Cultured human intestinal Caco-2 cells were pretreated with L. rhamnosus and L. plantarum probiotics. TJ were then disrupted by EGTA calcium switch or LPS to mimic NEC in vitro. Trans-epithelial resistance (TER) and flux of fluorescein isothiocynate dextran was measured. TJ structure was evaluated by ZO-1 immunofluorescence. In vivo effects of ingested probiotics on intestinal injury and ZO-1 expression were assessed in a rat model of NEC infected with Cronobacter sakazakii (CS). Caco-2 cells treated with individual probiotics demonstrated higher TER and lower permeability compared to untreated cells (p<0.0001). ZO-1 immunofluorescence confirmed TJ stability in treated cells. Rat pups fed probiotics alone had more intestinal injury compared with controls (p=0.0106). Probiotics were protective against injury when given in combination with CS, with no difference in intestinal injury compared to controls (p=0.21). Increased permeability was observed in the probiotic and CS groups (p=0.03, p=0.05), but not in the probiotic plus CS group (p=0.79). Lactobacillus sp. strengthened intestinal barrier function and preserved TJ integrity in an in vitro experimental model of NEC. In vivo, probiotic bacteria were not beneficial when given alone, but were protective in the presence of CS in a rat model of NEC.

Variability in Antibiotic Regimens for Surgical Necrotizing Enterocolitis Highlights the Need for New Guidelines.

BACKGROUND: Necrotizing enterocolitis or NEC is the most common gastrointestinal emergency in the newborn. The etiology of NEC remains unknown, and treatment consists of antibiotic therapy and supportive care with the addition of surgical intervention as necessary. Unlike most surgical diseases, clear guidelines for the type and duration of peri-operative antibiotic therapy have not been established. Our aim was to review the antibiotic regimen(s) applied to surgical patients with NEC within a single neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) and to evaluate outcomes and help develop guidelines for antibiotic administration in this patient population. PATIENTS AND METHODS: A single-center retrospective review was performed of all patients who underwent surgical intervention for NEC from August 1, 2005 through August 1, 2015. Relevant data were extracted including gestational age, age at diagnosis, gender, pre-operative antibiotic treatment, post-operative antibiotic treatment, development of stricture, and mortality. Patients were excluded if there was incomplete data documentation. RESULTS: A total of 90 patients were identified who met inclusion criteria. There were 56 male patients and 34 female patients. The average gestational age was 30 5/7 wks and average age of diagnosis 16.7 d. A total of 22 different pre-operative antibiotic regimens were identified with an average duration of 10.6 d. The most common pre-operative regimen was ampicillin, gentamicin, and metronidazole for 14 d. A total of 15 different post-operative antibiotic regimens were identified with an average duration of 6.6 d. The most common post-operative regimen was ampicillin, gentamicin, and metronidazole for two days. There were 26 strictures and 15 deaths. No regimen or duration proved superior. CONCLUSION: We found that there is a high degree of variability in the antibiotic regimen for the treatment of NEC, even within a single NICU, with no regimen appearing superior over another. As data emerge that demonstrate the adverse effects of antibiotic overuse, our findings highlight the need for guidelines in the antibiotic treatment of NEC and suggest that an abbreviated course of post-operative antibiotics may be safe.

A Role for cAMP and Protein Kinase A in Experimental Necrotizing Enterocolitis.

Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is a devastating intestinal disease that has been associated with Cronobacter sakazakii and typically affects premature infants. Although NEC has been actively investigated, little is known about the mechanisms underlying the pathophysiology of epithelial injury and intestinal barrier damage. Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and protein kinase A (PKA) are important mediators and regulators of apoptosis. To test the hypothesis that C. sakazakii increases cAMP and PKA activation in experimental NEC resulting in increased epithelial apoptosis, we investigated the effects of C. sakazakii on cAMP and PKA in vitro and in vivo. Specifically, rat intestinal epithelial cells and a human intestinal epithelial cell line were infected with C. sakazakii, and cAMP levels and phosphorylation of PKA were measured. An increase in cAMP was demonstrated after infection, as well as an increase in phosphorylated PKA. Similarly, increased intestinal cAMP and PKA phosphorylation were demonstrated in a rat pup model of NEC. These increases were correlated with increased intestinal epithelial apoptosis. The additional of a PKA inhibitor (KT5720) significantly ameliorated these effects and decreased the severity of experimental NEC. Findings were compared with results from human tissue samples. Collectively, these observations indicate that cAMP and PKA phosphorylation are associated with increased apoptosis in NEC and that inhibition of PKA activation protects against apoptosis and experimental NEC.

Overweight and Obese Pediatric Patients Have an Increased Risk of Developing a Surgical Site Infection.

BACKGROUND: Obesity is a known risk factor in adult surgical site infections (SSIs), but its significance in pediatrics is unclear. We hypothesized that overweight and obese children have increased risk for SSI. PATIENTS AND METHODS: A National Surgical Quality Improvement Program-Pediatric (NSQIP-P) file and single-center reviews identified surgical patients (2-18 years) who developed SSIs. Patients were classified as underweight, normal, overweight, or obese based on body mass index (BMI). Comorbidities associated with SSI were analyzed. Sub-specialties and operations were recorded. RESULTS: National Surgical Quality Improvement Program-Pediatric review identified 66,671 patients and 1,380 SSIs. Seven hundred sixty-seven (767) were male and 613 female. Multivariable analysis revealed overweight and obese BMI to be risk factors for SSIs (odds ratio [OR] 1.23, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.06-1.43; OR 1.43, 95% CI 1.25-1.63). Most commonly, overweight and obese cohorts had superficial incisional SSIs. Pediatric general surgery (3.6%) and cardiothoracic surgery (2.5%) had the highest rates of SSIs. Single-center review identified 115 SSIs. Of these, 29.6% were overweight or obese with few other identifiable SSI risk factors. Sub-specialties with the most SSIs were pediatric surgery and pediatric orthopedics. Appendectomy was the most common procedure associated with SSIs. CONCLUSION: Herein we show elevated BMI to be a significant risk factor for SSIs. This information should be used in assessing and counseling pre-operative pediatric patients and families.

Fetus in Fetu-A Case Report with a Variant Host Anastomosis.

Fetus in fetu is a rare congenital condition where a vertebrate fetus is found within the body of its host twin. It features a monozygotic parasitic twin attached via a vascular anastomosis to its host circulation. This report describes an instance of fetus in fetu with a variant presentation of its vascular pedicle to its host via the inferior epigastric vasculature.

Cronobacter spp.

The Cronobacter group of pathogens, associated with severe and potentially life-threatening diseases, until recently were classified as a single species, Enterobacter sakazakii. The group was reclassified in 2007 into the genus Cronobacter as a member of the Enterobacteriaceae. This chapter outlines the history behind the epidemiology, analyzes how our understanding of these bacteria has evolved, and highlights the clinical significance the Cronobacter spp. have for neonatal and elderly patient populations and treatment of the associated infections.

Pediatric Intussusception: Decreased Surgical Risk with Timely Transfer to a Children's Hospital.

INTRODUCTION: Intussusception is a potentially life-threatening condition, and a frequent cause of bowel obstruction during the first two years of life. We hypothesized that patients who were transferred from outside community hospitals, or OSH, without tertiary care capabilities for pediatric services to a large academic children's hospital with intussusception were more likely to require operative management for their intussusception than those who were directly admitted. METHODS: The electronic medical record was queried for patients presenting to Ann and Robert H. Lurie Children's Hospital of Chicago with a diagnosis of intussusception (July 1st, 2009-July 1st, 2014). Age, sex, symptom duration, radiologic management, and surgical care were recorded. OSH and transfer reports were analyzed for those patients that presented as a transfer. Statistical analysis was performed. RESULTS: We identified 270 patients with intussusception. 232 (80%) were successfully treated non-surgically. 58 (20%) required surgical management. Of the patients requiring surgery, there were 38 reductions (24 laparoscopic, 14 open) and 20 bowel resections (1 laparoscopic, 19 open). Of those patients requiring surgery, 37 (63.8%) had presented as a transfer from an OSH. We found that transferred patients, requiring surgery, spent a mean 7.77 hours at the OSH compared to 4.03 hours for the transferred patients that did not require surgery (p=0.0188). There was no significant difference in transport time (p=0.44). CONCLUSION: In conclusion, we identified the amount of time patients spend at hospitals without pediatric surgical capabilities as an independent risk factor necessitating surgical management of intussusception. These data suggest that patients with intussusception who present to hospitals without pediatric radiology or pediatric surgery, should be transferred in an expedited fashion. In the event of a failed enema reduction at an OSH, the transport of the patient should not be delayed as this may result in a higher likelihood of surgical management.

Observation for isolated traumatic skull fractures in the pediatric population: unnecessary and costly.

BACKGROUND: Blunt head trauma accounts for a majority of pediatric trauma admissions. There is a growing subset of these patients with isolated skull fractures, but little evidence guiding their management. We hypothesized that inpatient neurological observation for pediatric patients with isolated skull fractures and normal neurological examinations is unnecessary and costly. METHODS: We performed a single center 10year retrospective review of all head traumas with isolated traumatic skull fractures and normal neurological examination. Exclusion criteria included: penetrating head trauma, depressed fractures, intracranial hemorrhage, skull base fracture, pneumocephalus, and poly-trauma. In each patient, we analyzed: age, fracture location, loss of consciousness, injury mechanism, Emergency Department (ED) disposition, need for repeat imaging, hospital costs, intracranial hemorrhage, and surgical intervention. RESULTS: Seventy-one patients presented to our ED with acute isolated skull fractures, 56% were male and 44% were female. Their ages ranged from 1week to 12.4years old. The minority (22.5%) of patients were discharged from the ED following evaluation, whereas 77.5% were admitted for neurological observation. None of the patients required neurosurgical intervention. Age was not associated with repeat imaging or inpatient observation (p=0.7474, p=0.9670). No patients underwent repeat head imaging during their index admission. Repeat imaging was obtained in three previously admitted patients who returned to the ED. Cost analysis revealed a significant difference in total hospital costs between the groups, with an average increase in charges of $4,291.50 for admitted patients (p<0.0001). CONCLUSION: Pediatric isolated skull fractures are low risk conditions with a low likelihood of complications. Further studies are necessary to change clinical practice, but our research indicates that these patients can be discharged safely from the ED without inpatient observation. This change in practice, additionally, would allow for huge health care dollar savings.

Peripherally Inserted Central Catheters Complicated by Vascular Erosion in Neonates.

Peripherally inserted central catheters (PICCs) are widely used in the pediatric population, and their use continues to grow in popularity. These catheters provide a reliable source of venous access to neonatal patients but can also be the cause of life-threatening complications. There are several well-documented complications such as infections, catheter thrombosis, vascular extravasations, and fractured catheters. However, the complication of vascular erosion into the pleural space using both small and silicone-based catheters is rarely described. After obtaining institutional review board approval, we identified 4 cases to review of PICCs complicated by vascular erosions in the past 2 years. Herein, we also review the current literature of PICC complications. Getting the catheter tip as close to the atrial-caval junction as possible and confirmation of this placement are of the utmost importance. The thick wall of the vena cava near the atrium seems to be less likely to perforate; in addition, this position provides increased volume and turbulence to help dilute the hyperosmolar fluid, which seems to also be a factor in this complication. A daily screening chest x-ray in patients with upper extremity PICCs and ongoing parenteral nutrition (PN) are not necessary at this time given the overall low rate of vascular erosion and concerns regarding excessive radiation exposure in pediatric populations. However, a low threshold for chest x-ray imaging in patients with even mild respiratory symptoms in the setting of upper extremity PN is recommended.

Focal therapy of neuroblastoma using silk films to deliver kinase and chemotherapeutic agents in vivo.

Current methods for treatment of high-risk neuroblastoma patients include surgical intervention, in addition to systemic chemotherapy. However, only limited therapeutic tools are available to pediatric surgeons involved in neuroblastoma care, so the development of intraoperative treatment modalities is highly desirable. This study presents a silk film library generated for focal therapy of neuroblastoma; these films were loaded with either the chemotherapeutic agent doxorubicin or the targeted drug crizotinib. Drug release kinetics from the silk films were fine-tuned by changing the amount and physical crosslinking of silk; doxorubicin loaded films were further refined by applying a gold nanocoating. Doxorubicin-loaded, physically crosslinked silk films showed the best in vitro activity and superior in vivo activity in orthotopic neuroblastoma studies when compared to the doxorubicin-equivalent dose administered intravenously. Silk films were also suitable for delivery of the targeted drug crizotinib, as crizotinib-loaded silk films showed an extended release profile and an improved response both in vitro and in vivo when compared to freely diffusible crizotinib. These findings, when combined with prior in vivo data on silk, support a viable future for silk-based anticancer drug delivery systems.