Photoelectron Spectroscopy and Theoretical Studies of PCSe- , AsCS- , AsCSe- , and NCSe- : Insights into the Electronic Structures of the Whole Family of ECX- Anions (E=N, P, As; X=O, S, Se).

The newly synthesized phosphorus- and arsenic-containing analogues of the thio- and seleno-cyanate anions, PCSe- , AsCS- , and AsCSe- , as well as the known ion NCSe- were investigated in the gas phase by negative-ion photoelectron spectroscopy (NIPES), velocity-map imaging (VMI) spectroscopy, and quantum-chemical computations. The electron affinities (EA), spin-orbit (SO) splittings, and "symmetric"/"asymmetric" stretching frequencies of the neutral radicals ECX. (E=N, P, As; X=S, Se), generated by electron detachment from the corresponding anions, were obtained from the spectra. The calculated EAs, SO splittings, and vibrational frequencies are in excellent agreement with the experimental measurements. These newly obtained values, when combined with those previously determined for the lighter analogues, show interesting trends on descending the pnictogen and chalcogen series. These trends are rationalized based on electronegativity arguments, the electron distributions in the HOMOs, and NBO/NRT analyses.

Negative Ion Photoelectron Spectroscopy Confirms the Prediction of a Singlet Ground State for the 1,8-Naphthoquinone Diradical.

Negative ion photoelectron (NIPE) spectra, with 193, 266, 300, and 355 nm photons, of the radical anion of 1,8-naphthoquinone (1,8-NQ•-) have been obtained at 20 K. The electron affinity of 1,8-NQ is determined from the first resolved peak in the NIPE spectrum to be 2.965 ± 0.005 eV. Franck-Condon factors (FCFs), calculated from the CASPT2/aug-cc-pVDZ optimized geometries, normal modes, and vibrational frequencies, successfully simulate the intensity and frequencies of the spectral features that are associated with the lowest two electronic states. The NIPE spectra of 1,8-NQ•- and the peak assignments, based on the computed FCFs, confirm the theoretical predictions that 1A1 is the ground state of 1,8-NQ and 3B2 is the first excited state. The spectra provide an experimental value of Δ EST = -0.6 kcal/mol, which is 2 kcal/mol smaller in magnitude than the (12/12)CASPT2/aug-cc-pVTZ calculated value of Δ EST = -2.6 kcal/mol.

Calculations on 1,8-naphthoquinone predict that the ground state of this diradical is a singlet.

(12/12)CASPT2, (16/14)CASPT2, B3LYP, and CCSD(T) calculations have been carried out on 1,8-Naphthoquinone (1,8-NQ), to predict the low-lying electronic states and their relative energies in this non-Kekulé quinone diradical. CASPT2 predicts a 1 A1 ground state, with three other electronic states-3 B2 , 3 B1 , and 1 B1 -within about 10 kcal/mol of the ground state in energy. On the basis of the results of these calculations, it is predicted that NIPES experiments on 1,8-NQ •- will find that 1,8-NQ is a diradical with a singlet ground state. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Negative Ion Photoelectron Spectroscopy Confirms the Prediction of the Relative Energies of the Low-Lying Electronic States of 2,7-Naphthoquinone.

Cryogenic negative ion photoelectron (NIPE) spectra of the radical anion of 2,7-naphthoquinone (NQ•-) have been taken at 20 K, using 193, 240, 266, 300, and 355 nm lasers for electron detachment. The electron affinity of the NQ diradical is determined from the first resolved peak in the NIPE spectrum to be 2.880 ± 0.010 eV. CASPT2/aug-cc-pVDZ calculations predict with reasonable accuracy the positions of the 0-0 bands in the three lowest electronic states of NQ. In addition, the Franck-Condon factors calculated from the CASPT2/aug-cc-pVDZ optimized geometries, vibrational frequencies, and normal modes successfully simulate the vibrational structures in these bands. The NIPE spectrum of NQ•- confirms that, as predicted, 3B2 is the ground state, and the 1B2 and 1A1 states are, respectively, 12.7 and 16.4 kcal/mol higher in energy than the triplet ground state. The experimental value of Δ EST = 12.7 kcal/mol in NQ and the finding that 1B2 is the lower energy of the two singlet states confirm the results of the previous calculations on NQ. These calculations predicted an increase in Δ EST on the substitution of both methylene groups in 2,7-naphthoquinodimethane (NQDM) by oxygens in NQ, thus providing a dramatic contrast to the decrease of 17.5 kcal/mol in Δ EST found for substitution of one methylene group by one oxygen on going from trimethylenemethane (TMM) to oxyallyl (OXA).

Experimental and Theoretical Studies of the F• + H-F Transition-State Region by Photodetachment of [F-H-F].

The transition-state (TS) region of the simplest heavy-light-heavy type of reaction, F• + H-F → F-H + F•, is investigated in this work by a joint experimental and theoretical approach. Photodetaching the bifluoride anion, [F···H···F]-, generates a negative ion photoelectron (NIPE) spectrum with three partially resolved bands in the electron binding energy (eBE) range of 5.4-7.0 eV. These bands correspond to the transition from the ground state of the anion to the electronic ground state of [F-H-F]• neutral, with associated vibrational excitations. The significant increase of eBE of the bifluoride anion, relative to that of F-, reflects a hydrogen bond energy between F- and HF of ∼46 kcal/mol. Theoretical modeling reveals that the antisymmetric motion of H between the two F atoms, near the TS on the neutral [F-H-F]• surface, dominates the observed three bands, while the F-H-F bending, F-F symmetric stretching modes, and the couplings between them are calculated to account for the breadth of the observed spectrum. From the NIPE spectrum, a lower limit on the activation enthalpy for F• + H-F → F-H + F• can be estimated to be ΔH‡ = 12 ± 2 kcal/mol, a value below that of ΔH‡ = 14.9 kcal/mol, given by our G4 calculations.

Dioxygen: What Makes This Triplet Diradical Kinetically Persistent?

Experimental heats of formation and enthalpies obtained from G4 calculations both find that the resonance stabilization of the two unpaired electrons in triplet O2, relative to the unpaired electrons in two hydroxyl radicals, amounts to 100 kcal/mol. The origin of this huge stabilization energy is described within the contexts of both molecular orbital (MO) and valence-bond (VB) theory. Although O2 is a triplet diradical, the thermodynamic unfavorability of both its hydrogen atom abstraction and oligomerization reactions can be attributed to its very large resonance stabilization energy. The unreactivity of O2 toward both these modes of self-destruction maintains its abundance in the ecosphere and thus its availability to support aerobic life. However, despite the resonance stabilization of the π system of triplet O2, the weakness of the O-O σ bond makes reactions of O2, which eventually lead to cleavage of this bond, very favorable thermodynamically.

Spectroscopic Characterization, Computational Investigation, and Comparisons of ECX- (E = As, P, and N; X = S and O) Anions.

Three newly synthesized [Na+(221-Kryptofix)] salts containing AsCO-, PCO-, and PCS- anions were successfully electrosprayed into a vacuum, and these three ECX- anions were investigated by negative ion photoelectron spectroscopy (NIPES) along with high-resolution photoelectron imaging spectroscopy. For each ECX- anion, a well-resolved NIPE spectrum was obtained, in which every major peak is split into a doublet. The splittings are attributed to spin-orbit coupling (SOC) in the ECX• radicals. Vibrational progressions in the NIPE spectra of ECX- were assigned to the symmetric and the antisymmetric stretching modes in ECX• radicals. The electron affinities (EAs) and SO splittings of ECX• are determined from the NIPE spectra to be AsCO•: EA = 2.414 ± 0.002 eV, SO splitting = 988 cm-1; PCO•: EA = 2.670 ± 0.005 eV, SO splitting = 175 cm-1; PCS•: EA = 2.850 ± 0.005 eV, SO splitting = 300 cm-1. Calculations using the B3LYP, CASPT2, and CCSD(T) methods all predict linear geometries for both the anions and the neutral radicals. The calculated EAs and SO splittings for ECX• are in excellent agreement with the experimentally measured values. The simulated NIPE spectra, which are based on the calculated Franck-Condon factors, and the SO splittings nicely reproduce all of the observed spectral peaks, thus allowing unambiguous spectral assignments. The finding that PCS• has the greatest EA of the three triatomic molecules considered here is counterintuitive based upon simple electronegativity considerations, but this finding is understandable in terms of the movement of electron density from phosphorus in the HOMO of PCO- to sulfur in the HOMO of PCS-. Comparisons of the EAs of PCO• and PCS• with the previously measured EA values for NCO• and NCS• are made and discussed.

Isotope-Controlled Selectivity by Quantum Tunneling: Hydrogen Migration versus Ring Expansion in Cyclopropylmethylcarbenes.

Using the tunneling-controlled reactivity of cyclopropylmethylcarbene, we demonstrate the viability of isotope-controlled selectivity (ICS), a novel control element of chemical reactivity where a molecular system with two conceivable products of tunneling exclusively produces one or the other, depending only on isotopic composition. Our multidimensional small-curvature tunneling (SCT) computations indicate that, under cryogenic conditions, 1-methoxycyclopropylmethylcarbene shows rapid H-migration to 1-methoxy-1-vinylcyclopropane, whereas deuterium-substituted 1-methoxycyclopropyl-d3-methylcarbene undergoes ring expansion to 1-d3-methylcyclobutene. This predicted change in reactivity constitutes the first example of a kinetic isotope effect that discriminates between the formation of two products.

The Cope Rearrangement of 1,5-Dimethylsemibullvalene-2(4)-d1 : Experimental Evidence for Heavy-Atom Tunneling.

As an experimental test of the theoretical prediction that heavy-atom tunneling is involved in the degenerate Cope rearrangement of semibullvalenes at cryogenic temperatures, monodeuterated 1,5-dimethylsemibullvalene isotopomers were prepared and investigated by IR spectroscopy using the matrix isolation technique. As predicted, the less thermodynamically stable isotopomer rearranges at cryogenic temperatures in the dark to the more stable one, while broadband IR irradiation above 2000 cm-1 results in an equilibration of the isotopomeric ratio. Since this reaction proceeds with a rate constant in the order of 10-4  s-1 despite an experimental barrier of Ea =4.8 kcal mol-1 and with only a shallow temperature dependence, the results are interpreted in terms of heavy-atom tunneling.

Why Are Addition Reactions to N2 Thermodynamically Unfavorable?

Thermochemical data are used to show that, of the 89.9 kcal/mol difference between the endothermicity of H2 addition to N2 (ΔH = 47.9 kcal/mol) and the exothermicity of H2 addition to acetylene (ΔH = -42.0 kcal/mol), less than half is due to a stronger π bond in N2 than in acetylene. The other major contributor to the difference of 89.9 kcal/mol between the enthalpies of hydrogenation of N2 and acetylene is that the pair of N-H bonds that are created in the addition of H2 to N2 are significantly weaker than the pair of C-H bonds that are created in the addition of H2 to acetylene. The reasons for this large difference between the strengths of the N-H bonds in E-HN═NH and the C-H bonds in H2C═CH2 are analyzed and discussed.

Variations in Rotational Barriers of Allyl and Benzyl Cations, Anions, and Radicals.

High accuracy quantum chemical calculations show that the barriers to rotation of a CH2 group in the allyl cation, radical, and anion are 33, 14, and 21 kcal/mol, respectively. The benzyl cation, radical, and anion have barriers of 45, 11, and 24 kcal/mol, respectively. These barrier heights are related to the magnitude of the delocalization stabilization of each fully conjugated system. This paper addresses the question of why these rotational barriers, which at the Hückel level of theory are independent of the number of nonbonding electrons in allyl and benzyl, are in fact calculated to be factors that are of 2.4 and 4.1 higher in the cations and 1.5 and 1.9 higher in the anions than in the radicals. We also investigate why the barrier to rotation is higher for benzyl than for allyl in the cations and in the anions. Only in the radicals is the barrier for benzyl lower than that for allyl, as Hückel theory predicts should be the case. These fundamental questions in electronic structure theory, which have not been addressed previously, are related to differences in electron-electron repulsions in the conjugated and nonconjugated systems, which depend on the number of nonbonding electrons.

A Joint Experimental and Computational Study of the Negative Ion Photoelectron Spectroscopy of the 1-Phospha-2,3,4-triazolate Anion, HCPN3(.).

We report here the results of a combined experimental and computational study of the negative ion photoelectron spectroscopy (NIPES) of the recently synthesized, planar, aromatic, HCPN3(-) ion. The adiabatic electron detachment energy of HCPN3(-) (electron affinity of HCPN3(•)) was measured to be 3.555 ± 0.010 eV, a value that is intermediate between the electron detachment energies of the closely related (CH)2N3(-) and P2N3(-) ions. High level electronic structure calculations and Franck-Condon factor (FCF) simulations reveal that transitions from the ground state of the anion to two nearly degenerate, low-lying, electronic states, of the neutral HCPN3(•) radical are responsible for the congested peaks at low binding energies in the NIPE spectrum. The best fit of the simulated NIPE spectrum to the experimental spectrum indicates that the ground state of HCPN3(•) is a 5π-electron (2)A″ π radical state, with a 6π-electron, (2)A', σ radical state being at most 1.0 kcal/mol higher in energy.

Negative ion photoelectron spectroscopy confirms the prediction that D3h carbon trioxide (CO3) has a singlet ground state.

The CO3 radical anion (CO3˙-) has been formed by electrospraying carbonate dianion (CO32-) into the gas phase. The negative ion photoelectron (NIPE) spectrum of CO3˙- shows that, unlike the isoelectronic trimethylenemethane [C(CH2)3], D3h carbon trioxide (CO3) has a singlet ground state. From the NIPE spectrum, the electron affinity of D3h singlet CO3 was, for the first time, directly determined to be EA = 4.06 ± 0.03 eV, and the energy difference between the D3h singlet and the lowest triplet was measured as ΔEST = - 17.8 ± 0.9 kcal mol-1. B3LYP, CCSD(T), and CASPT2 calculations all find that the two lowest triplet states of CO3 are very close in energy, a prediction that is confirmed by the relative intensities of the bands in the NIPE spectrum of CO3˙-. The 560 cm-1 vibrational progression, seen in the low energy region of the triplet band, enables the identification of the lowest, Jahn-Teller-distorted, triplet state as 3A1, in which both unpaired electrons reside in σ MOs, rather than 3A2, in which one unpaired electron occupies the b2 σ MO, and the other occupies the b1 π MO.

Negative ion photoelectron spectroscopy of P2N3-: electron affinity and electronic structures of P2N3˙.

We report here a negative ion photoelectron spectroscopy (NIPES) and ab initio study of the recently synthesized planar aromatic inorganic ion P2N3-, to investigate the electronic structures of P2N3- and its neutral P2N3˙ radical. The adiabatic detachment energy of P2N3- (electron affinity of P2N3˙) was determined to be 3.765 ± 0.010 eV, indicating high stability for the P2N3- anion. Ab initio electronic structure calculations reveal the existence of five, low-lying, electronic states in the neutral P2N3˙ radical. Calculation of the Franck-Condon factors (FCFs) for each anion-to-neutral electronic transition and comparison of the resulting simulated NIPE spectrum with the vibrational structure in the observed spectrum allows the first four excited states of P2N3˙ to be determined to lie 6.2, 6.7, 11.5, and 22.8 kcal mol-1 above the ground state of the radical, which is found to be a 6π-electron, 2A1, σ state.

Nucleus-independent chemical shift analysis of the electronic states of the (CO)4, (CS)4, and (CSe)4 molecules.

NICS(1) calculations have been performed on the 8π and 10π singlet states and the 9π triplet state of (CO)4, (CS)4, and (CSe)4. The results show that transfer of electrons from the b2g σ MO into the a2u π MO decreases the NICS(1) value, indicating an increase in the diamagnetic ring current. The decreases in the calculated NICS(1) values are substantially larger in (CO)4 than in (CS)4 or (CSe)4. This finding is rationalized by the larger coefficients on the carbons in the a2u MO of (CO)4 than in the a2u MOs of (CS)4 and (CSe)4.

Theoretical Analysis of the Fragmentation of (CO)5: A Symmetry-Allowed Highly Exothermic Reaction that Follows a Stepwise Pathway.

B3LYP and CCSD(T) calculations, using an aug-cc-pVTZ basis set, have been carried out on the fragmentation of 1,2,3,4,5-cyclopentanepentone, (CO)(5), to five molecules of CO. Although this reaction is calculated to be highly exothermic and is allowed to be concerted by the Woodward-Hoffmann rules, our calculations find that the D(5h) energy maximum is a multidimensional hilltop on the potential energy surface. This D(5h) hilltop is 16-20 kcal/mol higher in energy than a C(2) transition structure for the endothermic cleavage of (CO)(5) to (CO)(4) + CO and 11-15 kcal/mol higher than a C(s) transition structure for the loss of two CO molecules. The reasons for the very high energy of the D(5h) hilltop are discussed, and the geometries of the two lower energy transition structures are rationalized on the basis of mixing of the e(2)' HOMO and the a(2)″ LUMO of the hilltop.

Negative Ion Photoelectron Spectroscopy Confirms the Prediction that 1,2,4,5-Tetraoxatetramethylenebenzene Has a Singlet Ground State.

The negative ion photoelectron (NIPE) spectrum of 1,2,4,5-tetraoxatetramethylenebenzene radical anion (TOTMB(•-)) shows that, like the hydrocarbon, 1,2,4,5-tetramethylenebenzene (TMB), the TOTMB diradical has a singlet ground state and thus violates Hund's rule. The NIPE spectrum of TOTMB(•-) gives a value of -ΔEST = 3.5 ± 0.2 kcal/mol for the energy difference between the singlet and triplet states of TOTMB and a value of EA = 4.025 ± 0.010 eV for the electron affinity of TOTMB. (10/10)CASPT2 calculations are successful in predicting the singlet-triplet energy difference in TOTMB almost exactly, giving a computed value of -ΔEST = 3.6 kcal/mol. The same type of calculations predict -ΔEST = 6.1-6.3 kcal/mol in TMB. Thus, the calculated effect of the substitution of the four oxygens in TOTMB for the four methylene groups in TMB is very unusual, since the singlet state is selectively destabilized relative to the triplet state. The reason why TMB → TOTMB is predicted to result in a decrease in the size of -ΔEST is discussed.

Formation of Ground State Triplet Diradicals from Annulated Rosarin Derivatives by Triprotonation.

Annulated rosarins, ß,ß'-bridged hexaphyrin(1.0.1.0.1.0) derivatives 1-3, are formally 24 π-electron antiaromatic species. At low temperature, rosarins 2 and 3 are readily triprotonated in the presence of trifluoroacetic acid in dichloromethane to produce ground state triplet diradicals, as inferred from electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectral studies. From an analysis of the fine structure in the EPR spectrum of triprotonated rosarin H33(3+), a distance of 3.6 Å between the two unpaired electrons was estimated. The temperature dependence of the singlet-triplet equilibrium was determined by means of an EPR titration. Support for these experimental findings came from calculations carried out at the (U)B3LYP/6-31G* level, which served to predict a very low-lying triplet state for the triprotonated form of a simplified model system 1.

The negative ion photoelectron spectrum of cyclopropane-1,2,3-trione radical anion, (CO)3(•-)--a joint experimental and computational study.

Negative ion photoelectron (NIPE) spectra of the radical anion of cyclopropane-1,2,3-trione, (CO)3(•-), have been obtained at 20 K, using both 355 and 266 nm lasers for electron photodetachment. The spectra show broadened bands, due to the short lifetimes of both the singlet and triplet states of neutral (CO)3 and, to a lesser extent, to the vibrational progressions that accompany the photodetachment process. The smaller intensity of the band with the lower electron binding energy suggests that the singlet is the ground state of (CO)3. From the NIPE spectra, the electron affinity (EA) and the singlet-triplet energy gap of (CO)3 are estimated to be, respectively, EA = 3.1 ± 0.1 eV and ΔEST = -14 ± 3 kcal/mol. High-level, (U)CCSD(T)/aug-cc-pVQZ//(U)CCSD(T)/aug-cc-pVTZ, calculations give EA = 3.04 eV for the (1)A1' ground state of (CO)3 and ΔEST = -13.8 kcal/mol for the energy gap between the (1)A1' and (3)A2 states, in excellent agreement with values from the NIPE spectra. In addition, simulations of the vibrational structures for formation of these states of (CO)3 from the (2)A2″ state of (CO)3(•-) provide a good fit to the shapes of broad bands in the 266 nm NIPE spectrum. The NIPE spectrum of (CO)3(•-) and the analysis of the spectrum by high-quality electronic structure calculations demonstrate that NIPES can not only access and provide information about transition structures but NIPES can also access and provide information about hilltops on potential energy surfaces.