Collision-Induced Dissociation of Fucose and Identification of Anomericity.

Structural determination of carbohydrates using mass spectrometry remains challenging, particularly, the differentiation of anomeric configurations. In this work, we studied the collision-induced dissociation (CID) mechanisms of sodiated α- and ß-l-fucose using an experimental method and quantum chemistry calculations. The calculations show that α-l-fucose is more likely to undergo dehydration due to the fact that O1 and O2 are on the same side of the sugar ring. In contrast, ß-l-fucose is more prone to the ring-opening reaction because more OH groups are on the same side of the sugar ring as O1. These differences suggest a higher preference for the dehydration reaction in sodiated α-l-fucose but a lower preference for ring-opening compared to that of ß-l-fucose. The calculation results, which are used to assign the CID mass spectra of α- and ß-l-fucose separated by high-performance liquid chromatography, are supported by the fucose produced from the CID of disaccharides Fuc-ß-(1 → 3)-GlcNAc and Fuc-α-(1 → 4)-GlcNAc. This study demonstrates that the correlation of cis- and trans-configurations of O1 and O2 to the relative branching ratios of dehydration and cross-ring dissociation in CID, observed in aldohexose and ketohexose in the pyranose form, can be extended to deoxyhexoses for anomericity determination.

Chromatograms and Mass Spectra of High-Mannose and Paucimannose N-Glycans for Rapid Isomeric Identifications.

N-Linked glycosylation is one of the most essential post-translational modifications of proteins. However, N-glycan structural determination remains challenging because of the small differences in structures between isomers. In this study, we constructed a database containing collision-induced dissociation MSn mass spectra and chromatograms of high-performance liquid chromatography for the rapid identification of high-mannose and paucimannose N-glycan isomers. These N-glycans include isomers by breaking of arbitrary numbers of glycosidic bonds at arbitrary positions of canonical Man9GlcNAc2 N-glycans. In addition, some GlcMannGlcNAc2 N-glycan isomers were included in the database. This database is particularly useful for the identification of the N-glycans not in conventional N-glycan standards. This study demonstrated the application of the database to structural assignment for high-mannose N-glycans extracted from bovine whey proteins, soybean proteins, human mammary epithelial cells, and human breast carcinoma cells. We found many N-glycans that are not expected to be generated by conventional biosynthetic pathways of multicellular eukaryotes.

Identification of side-reaction products generated during the ammonia-catalyzed release of N-glycans.

N-linked glycosylation is one of the most important post translational modification of proteins. Various analytical techniques are used for the structural identification of the N-glycans released from proteins through various enzymatic and chemical methods. Although very few side-reaction products are generated during the enzymatic release of N-glycans, this method is expensive and suitable only for small quantities of samples. By contrast, chemical methods can be used for large quantities of samples; however, various side-reaction products are generated when chemical methods are used. Recently, the ammonia-catalyzed release of N-glycans from proteins has been reported to be associated with no typical side reactions. In the present study, we discovered a new side reaction: the epimerization of N-acetylglucosamine present at the reducing end of N-glycans to N-acetylmannosamine. The product of this side reaction interfered with the structural identification N-glycans. We propose a simple method that can help identify this artifact N-glycan isomer and eliminate the aforementioned interference. This simple method widens the applicability of ammonia-catalyzed reactions for N-glycan release from proteins, and is also suitable for N-glycans released using any other alkaline solutions.

Electrospray ionization in-source decay of N-glycans and the effects on N-glycan structural identification.

RATIONAL: Electrospray ionization (ESI) and matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization (MALDI) are soft ionization techniques commonly used in mass spectrometry. Although in-source and post-source decays of MALDI have been investigated extensively, the analogous decays of ESI have received little attention. Previous studies regarding the analogous decays of ESI focus on the dissociation of multiply charged proteins and peptides. The decay of carbohydrates in ESI has not been investigated yet, and it may have interference in carbohydrate structural determination. METHODS: Commercial apparatus, including a high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), an ESI source, and a linear ion trap mass spectrometer, were used to investigate the fragmentation of several N-glycans during the ESI process. RESULTS: About 0.2%-3% of neutral N-glycans and more than 50% of N-glycans consisting of a sialic acid are dissociated into small N-glycans by ESI in-source decay in typical ESI operating conditions. The efficiencies of most dissociation channels increase as the temperature of ion transfer capillary increases, indicating that part of the energy deposited into the precursor ions for cracking is from the heated capillary. The cracking patterns of ESI in-source decay are slightly different from those of gaseous phase collision-induced dissociation. CONCLUSIONS: Large N-glycans are dissociated into small N-glycans in ESI in-source decay that may result in the interference of the structural identification of small N-glycans. Separation of large N-glycans from small N-glycans, for example, using HPLC, prior to ESI ionization is necessary to eliminate the interference. This is particularly important when N-glycans consist of sialic acid or large N-glycans have much higher concentration than that of small N-glycans in ESI solution.

Collision-induced dissociation of xylose and its applications in linkage and anomericity identification.

Collision-induced dissociation (CID) of α-xylose and ß-xylose were studied using mass spectrometry and quantum chemistry calculations. Three dissociation channels, namely loss of metal ions, dehydration, and cross-ring dissociation were found. The major dissociation channel of sodium adducts is the loss of sodium ions, and the minor dissociation channels are dehydration and cross-ring dissociation. By contrast, dehydration and cross-ring dissociation are the major dissociation channels of lithium adducts, and the corresponding dissociation mechanisms can be used to determine the anomericity and linkages of xylose in oligosaccharides. These mechanisms include (1) the dehydration branching ratio can be used to differentiate the anomericity of xylose and xylose in oligosaccharides because α-xylose has a larger branching ratio of dehydration than ß-xylose, (2) various cross-ring dissociation reactions can be used to identify linkage positions. The oligosaccharide with xylose at the reducing end is predicted to undergo 0,2X, 0,3X, and 0,2A cross-ring dissociation for the 1 → 2, 1 → 3, and 1 → 4 linkages, respectively. Application of these mechanisms to determine the anomericity and linkage positions of xylobiose was demonstrated.

Structural identification of N-glycan isomers using logically derived sequence tandem mass spectrometry.

N-linked glycosylation is one of the most important protein post-translational modifications. Despite the importance of N-glycans, the structural determination of N-glycan isomers remains challenging. Here we develop a mass spectrometry method, logically derived sequence tandem mass spectrometry (LODES/MSn), to determine the structures of N-glycan isomers that cannot be determined using conventional mass spectrometry. In LODES/MSn, the sequences of successive collision-induced dissociation are derived from carbohydrate dissociation mechanisms and apply to N-glycans in an ion trap for structural determination. We validate LODES/MSn using synthesized N-glycans and subsequently applied this method to N-glycans extracted from soybean, ovalbumin, and IgY. Our method does not require permethylation, reduction, and labeling of N-glycans, or the mass spectrum databases of oligosaccharides and N-glycan standards. Moreover, it can be applied to all types of N-glycans (high-mannose, hybrid, and complex), as well as the N-glycans degraded from larger N-glycans by any enzyme or acid hydrolysis.

Toward understanding the ionization mechanism of matrix-assisted ionization using mass spectrometry experiment and theory.

RATIONALE: Matrix-assisted ionization (MAI) mass spectrometry does not require voltages, a laser beam, or added heat to initiate ionization, but it is strongly dependent on the choice of matrix and the vacuum conditions. High charge state distributions of nonvolatile analyte ions produced by MAI suggest that the ionization mechanism may be similar to that of electrospray ionization (ESI), but different from matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI). While significant information is available for MAI using mass spectrometers operating at atmospheric and intermediate pressure, little is known about the mechanism at high vacuum. METHODS: Eleven MAI matrices were studied on a high-vacuum time-of-flight (TOF) mass spectrometer using a 266 nm pulsed laser beam under otherwise typical MALDI conditions. Detailed comparisons with the commonly used MALDI matrices and theoretical prediction were made for 3-nitrobenzonitrile (3-NBN), which is the only MAI matrix that works well in high vacuum when irradiated with a laser. RESULTS: Screening of MAI matrices with good absorption at 266 nm but with various degrees of volatility and laser energies suggests that volatility and absorption at the laser wavelength may be necessary, but not sufficient, criteria to explain the formation of multiply charged analyte ions. 3-NBN produces intact, highly charged ions of nonvolatile analytes in high-vacuum TOF with the use of a laser, demonstrating that ESI-like ions can be produced in high vacuum. Theoretical calculations and mass spectra suggest that thermally induced proton transfer, which is the major ionization mechanism in MALDI, is not important with the 3-NBN matrix at 266 nm laser wavelength. 3-NBN:analyte crystal morphology is, however, important in ion generation in high vacuum. CONCLUSIONS: The 3-NBN MAI matrix produces intact, highly charged ions of nonvolatile compounds in high-vacuum TOF mass spectrometers with the aid of ablation and/or heating by laser irradiation, and shows a different ionization mechanism from that of typical MALDI matrices.

Unexpected Dissociation Mechanism of Sodiated N-Acetylglucosamine and N-Acetylgalactosamine.

The mechanism for the collision-induced dissociation (CID) of two sodiated N-acetylhexosamines (HexNAc), N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc), and N-acetylgalactosamine (GalNAc), was studied using quantum-chemistry calculations and resonance excitation in a low-pressure linear ion trap. Experimental results show that the major dissociation channel of the isotope labeled [1-18O, D5]-HexNAc is the dehydration by eliminating HDO, where OD comes from the OD group at C3. Dissociation channels of minor importance include the 0,2A cross-ring dissociation. No difference has been observed between the CID spectra of the α- and ß-anomers of the same HexNAc. At variance, the CID spectra of GlcNAc and GalNAc showed some differences, which can be used to distinguish the two structures. It was observed in CID experiments involving disaccharides with a HexNAc at the nonreducing end that a ß-HexNAc shows a larger dissociation branching ratio for the glycosidic bond cleavage than the α-anomer. This finding can be exploited for the rapid identification of the anomeric configuration at the glycosidic bond of HexNAc-R' (R' = sugar) structures. The experimental observations indicating that the dissociation mechanisms of HexNAcs are significantly different from those of hexoses were explained by quantum-chemistry calculations. Calculations show that ring opening is the major channel for HexNAcs in a ring form. After ring opening, dehydration shows the lowest barrier. In contrast, the glycosidic bond cleavage becomes the major channel for HexNAcs at the nonreducing end of a disaccharide. This reaction has a lower barrier for ß-HexNAcs as compared with the barrier of the corresponding α-anomers, consistent with the higher branching ratio for ß-HexNAcs observed in experiment.

Collision-induced dissociation of sodiated glucose, galactose, and mannose, and the identification of anomeric configurations.

Collision-induced dissociation of sodiated α-glucose, ß-glucose, α-galactose, ß-galactose, α-mannose, and ß-mannose was studied using electronic structure calculations and resonance excitation in a low-pressure linear ion trap. We made an extensive search of conformers and transition states in calculations to ensure the transition state with the lowest barrier height for each dissociation channel could be located. The major dissociation channels, in addition to desodiation, are cross-ring dissociation and dehydration. Cross-ring dissociation starts with H atom transfer from the O1 atom to the O0 atom, followed by the cleavage of the C1-O0 bond. Dehydration of the anomer with O1 and O2 atoms in the cis configuration involves the transfer of an H atom from the O2 atom to the O1 atom, followed by the cleavage of the C1-O1 bond. In contrast, dehydration of the anomer with O1 and O2 atoms in the trans configuration mainly occurs through H atom transfer from the O3 or O2 atom to the O1 atom for glucose, from the O3 or O4 atom to the O1 atom for galactose, and from the O4 or O2 atom to the O1 atom for mannose, followed by the cleavage of the C1-O1 bond. The dehydration barrier heights are lower than those of cross-ring dissociation for cis anomers, but higher than those of cross-ring dissociation for trans anomers. The relative barrier heights from calculations are consistent with the experimental measurements of branching ratios. Both computational and experimental results show that the branching ratio of dehydration can be generalized as a simple rule for rapidly identifying the anomeric configurations of these monosaccharides.

Does low-energy collision-induced dissociation of lithiated and sodiated carbohydrates always occur at anomeric carbon of the reducing end?

RATIONALE: Collision-induced dissociation (CID) tandem mass spectrometry is one of the major methods in the structural determination of carbohydrates. Previous experimental studies and theoretical investigation of lithiated and sodiated underivatized carbohydrates seem to indicate that dehydration reactions and cross-ring dissociation of low-energy CID mainly occur at the anomeric carbon of the reducing end. However, these studies only investigated a few carbohydrates. METHODS: ESI-MS/MS spectra of [M + Li]+ and [M + Na]+ ions of several 18 O1-labeled monosaccharides and disaccharides at O1 of the reducing end were studied using a linear ion trap mass spectrometer. RESULTS: Dissociations from the losses of both labeled and unlabeled neutral fragments were observed. The branching ratios of dissociations from the losses of unlabeled neutrals for dehydration reactions are larger than that for cross-ring dissociation; lithiated carbohydrates are larger than sodiated carbohydrates, and 1-4 linkages of disaccharides are larger than the other linkages. For some lithiated carbohydrates, dehydration reactions from the losses of unlabeled neutrals have larger branching ratios than that from the losses of labeled neutrals. The fragments from the losses of unlabeled neutrals investigated using MS3 showed that the losses of unlabeled H2 O mainly occur at the reducing monomer for sodiated carbohydrates, but the losses of unlabeled C2 H4 O2 for lithiated carbohydrates can occur at both reducing and nonreducing monomers. The ratio of B1 and Y1 ions to C1 and Z1 ions of disaccharides is related to the cis or trans configuration of the O1 and O2 atoms in the nonreducing monomer. The results are explained by the properties of transition states of dissociation channels. CONCLUSIONS: Our data shows that dehydration reactions and cross ring dissociation do not always occur at the anomeric carbon atom of the reducing monomer.

Laser Pulse Width Dependence and Ionization Mechanism of Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization.

Ultraviolet laser pulses at 355 nm with variable pulse widths in the region from 170 ps to 1.5 ns were used to investigate the ionization mechanism of matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) for matrices 2,5-dihydroxybenzoic acid (DHB), α-cyano-4-hydroxycinnamic acid (CHCA), and sinapinic acid (SA). The mass spectra of desorbed ions and the intensity and velocity distribution of desorbed neutrals were measured simultaneously for each laser shot. These quantities were found to be independent of the laser pulse width. A comparison of the experimental measurements and numerical simulations according to the multiphoton ionization, coupled photophysical and chemical dynamics (CPCD), and thermally induced proton transfer models showed that the predictions of thermally induced proton transfer model were in agreement with the experimental data, but those of the multiphoton ionization model were not. Moreover, the predictions of the CPCD model based on singlet-singlet energy pooling were inconsistent with the experimental data of CHCA and SA, but were consistent with the experimental data of DHB only when some parameters used in the model were adjusted to extreme values. Graphical Abstract ᅟ.

Collision-induced dissociation of sodiated glucose and identification of anomeric configuration.

Collision-induced dissociation (CID) of sodiated glucose was investigated using electronic structure calculations and resonance excitation in a low-pressure linear ion trap. The major dissociation channels in addition to desodiation are dehydration and C2H4O2 elimination reactions which the barrier heights are near to or lower than the sodiation energy of glucose. Dehydration reaction involves the transfer of the H atom from the O2 atom to the O1 atom, followed by the cleavage of the C1-O1 bond. Notably, α-glucose has a dehydration barrier lower than that of ß-glucose. This difference results in the larger branching ratio of dehydration reactions involving α-glucose, which provides a simple and fast method for identifying the anomeric configurations of glucose. The C2H4O2 elimination starts from the H atom transfer from the O1 atom to the O0 atom, followed by the cleavage of the C1-O0 bond. These results were further confirmed by experimental study using 18O-isotope-labeled compounds. Both the experimental data and theoretical calculations suggest that the dehydration reaction and cross-ring dissociation of sodiated carbohydrates mainly occur at the reducing end during low-energy CID.

Theoretical investigation of low detection sensitivity for underivatized carbohydrates in ESI and MALDI.

Electrospray ionization (ESI) and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) mainly generate protonated ions from peptides and proteins but sodiated (or potassiated) ions from carbohydrates. The ion intensities of sodiated (or potassiated) carbohydrates generated by ESI and MALDI are generally lower than those of protonated peptides and proteins. Ab initio calculations and transition state theory were used to investigate the reasons for the low detection sensitivity for underivatized carbohydrates. We used glucose and cellobiose as examples and showed that the low detection sensitivity is partly attributable to the following factors. First, glucose exhibits a low proton affinity. Most protons generated by ESI or MALDI attach to water clusters and matrix molecules. Second, protonated glucose and cellobiose can easily undergo dehydration reactions. Third, the sodiation affinities of glucose and cellobiose are small. Some sodiated glucose and cellobiose dissociate into the sodium cations and neutral carbohydrates during ESI or MALDI process. The increase of detection sensitivity of carbohydrates in mass spectrometry by various methods can be rationalized according to these factors. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Comment on: MALDI ionization mechanisms investigated by comparison of isomers of dihydroxybenzoic acid.

Ionization mechanism of matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization was recently investigated by Kirmess et al. (J. Mass Spectrom. 2016, 51, 79). The authors compared the ion yields of dihydroxybenzoic acid isomers between experimental measurements and theoretical models and claimed that the predictions of chemical and physical dynamics model are in good agreement with experimental data, but the predictions of thermal model are not. Here, we show that wrong S1-S1 energy pooling rate constants and absorption cross sections were used in the aforementioned article. In addition, we suggest the authors to list the values of many parameters used in their calculations and describe how they obtained these values because these values are completely unknown.

Highly Selective Dissociation of a Peptide Bond Following Excitation of Core Electrons.

The controlled breaking of a specific chemical bond with photons in complex molecules remains a major challenge in chemistry. In principle, using the K-edge absorption of a particular atomic element, one might excite selectively a specific atomic entity in a molecule. We report here highly selective dissociation of the peptide bonds in N-methylformamide and N-methylacetamide on tuning the X-ray wavelength to the K-edge absorption of the atoms connected to (or near) the peptide bond. The high selectivity (56-71%) of this cleavage arises from the large energy shift of X-ray absorption, a large overlap of the 1s orbital and the valence π* orbital that is highly localized on a peptide bond with antibonding character, and the relatively low bond energy of the peptide bonds. These characteristics indicate that the high selectivity on bond dissociation following core excitation could be a general feature for molecules containing peptide bonds.

Ion-to-Neutral Ratios and Thermal Proton Transfer in Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization.

The ion-to-neutral ratios of four commonly used solid matrices, α-cyano-4-hydroxycinnamic acid (CHCA), 2,5-dihydroxybenzoic acid (2,5-DHB), sinapinic acid (SA), and ferulic acid (FA) in matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) at 355 nm are reported. Ions are measured using a time-of-flight mass spectrometer combined with a time-sliced ion imaging detector. Neutrals are measured using a rotatable quadrupole mass spectrometer. The ion-to-neutral ratios of CHCA are three orders of magnitude larger than those of the other matrices at the same laser fluence. The ion-to-neutral ratios predicted using the thermal proton transfer model are similar to the experimental measurements, indicating that thermal proton transfer reactions play a major role in generating ions in ultraviolet-MALDI.

Core excitation, specific dissociation, and the effect of the size of aromatic molecules connected to oxygen: phenyl ether and 1,3-diphenoxybenzene.

Near-edge X-ray absorption fine structure (NEXAFS) spectra of phenyl ether at the carbon K-edge and 1,3-diphenoxybenzene at both the carbon and oxygen K-edges were measured in the total ion yield mode using X-rays from a synchrotron and a reflectron time-of-flight mass spectrometer. Time-dependent density functional theory was adopted to calculate the carbon and oxygen K-edge NEXAFS spectra of phenol, phenyl ether, and 1,3-diphenoxybenzene. The assignments and a comparison of the experimental and calculated spectra are presented. The mass spectra of ionic products formed after X-ray absorption at various excitation energies are also reported. Specific dissociations were observed for the 1s → π* transition of phenyl ether. In comparison with phenol and phenyl ether, the dependence of the fragmentation on the excitation site and destination state was weak in 1,3-diphenoxybenzene, likely as a result of delocalization of the valence electrons and rapid randomization of energy.

Theoretical prediction of new noble-gas molecules FNgBNR (Ng = Ar, Kr, and Xe; R = H, CH3, CCH, CHCH2, F, and OH).

We have computationally predicted a new class of stable noble-gas molecules FNgBNR (Ng = Ar, Kr, Xe; R = H, CH3, CCH, CHCH2, F, and OH). The FNgBNR were found to have compact structures with F-Ng bond lengths of 1.9-2.2 Å and Ng-B bond lengths of ~1.8 Å. The endoergic three-body dissociation energies of FNgBNH to F + Ng + BNH were calculated to be 12.8, 31.7, and 63.9 kcal mol(-1), for Ng = Ar, Kr, and Xe, respectively at the CCSD(T)/CBS level. The energy barriers of the exoergic two-body dissociation to Ng + FBNH were calculated to be 16.1, 24.0, and 33.2 kcal mol(-1) for Ng = Ar, Kr, and Xe, respectively. Our results showed that the dissociation energetics is relatively insensitive to the identities of the terminal R groups. The current study suggested that a wide variety of noble-gas containing molecules with different types of R groups can be thermally stable at low temperature, and the number of potentially stable noble-gas containing molecules would thus increase very significantly. It is expected some of the FNgBNR molecules could be identified in future experiments under cryogenic conditions in noble-gas matrices or in the gas phase.

Theoretical prediction on the thermal stability of cyclic ozone and strong oxygen tunneling.

Dual-level dynamics calculation with variational transition state theory including multidimensional tunneling has been performed on the isomerization reaction of cyclic ozone → normal (open) ozone, which was believed to be the stability-determining reaction of the elusive cyclic ozone molecule under thermal condition. The high-level potential energy surface data were obtained from the calculation using the MRCISD+Q theory with the aug-cc-pVQZ basis set, while the low-level reaction path information was obtained using the hybrid density functional theory B3LYP with the cc-pVTZ basis set. The calculated results showed very significant tunneling effects below 300 K (a factor of ∼200 at 300 K and over 10(7) at 200 K). Because of the strong tunneling effects and the potential energy surface crossing of the 1A(1) and 1A(2) states, the isomerization reactions were found to be significantly faster than previously believed. The half-life of the cyclic ozone was estimated only ∼10 s at 200 K and ∼70 s below 100 K, which might partly explain the unsuccessful attempts for its experimental identification. The kinetic isotope effects (KIEs) for various (18)O substitution reactions were also calculated as a function of temperature and were as high as 10 at very low temperature. Because of the large KIEs, the experimental identification of the cyclic (18)O(3) seems more promising.

Multicoefficient density functional theory (MC-DFT).

We have systematically tested the performance of several pure and hybrid versions of density functional methods on different types of molecular energies by combining energies calculated using more than one basis sets. Most hybrid functionals show important performance improvement as compared to methods using only a single basis set. The results suggest that, in many cases, scaling the basis set corrections is also important for density functional theory calculation. The best method, the B1B95 functional using the cc-pVDZ/cc-pVTZ/aug-cc-pVDZ basis set combination, achieves an average accuracy of 1.76 kcal/mol on a database of 109 atomization energies, 38 hydrogen-transfer barrier heights, 38 non-hydrogen-transfer barrier heights, 13 ionization potentials, and 13 electron affinities.