[Thrombosis and obstruction associated with central venous lines. Incidence and risk factors]. / Trombosis y obstrucción asociadas a vías venosas centrales. Incidencia y factores de riesgo.

OBJECTIVE: To analyse the incidence of thrombosis and obstruction associated with central venous lines (CVL) inserted in critically ill children, and to determine their risk factors. DESIGN: Prospective observational study in a Pediatric Intensive Care Unit in a University Hospital. MATERIAL AND METHOD: An analysis was made of 825 CVL placed in 546 patients. Age, gender, weight, type of catheter (lines, size, and brand), final location of the catheter, mechanical ventilation, type of sedation and analgesia used, initial failure by the doctor to perform CVL catheterization, number of attempts, CVL indication, admission diagnosis, emergency or scheduled procedure, and delayed mechanical complications (DMC). Risk factors for these complications were determined by a multiple regression analysis. RESULTS: A total of 52 cases of DMC, 42 cases of obstruction, and 10 of thrombosis were registered. Obstruction and thrombosis rates were 4.96 and 1.18 per 100 CVL, respectively. The only risk factor independently linked to obstruction was the duration of the CVL (OR 1.05; 95% CI; 1.00-1.10). The number of lines with thrombosis (OR 4.88; 95% CI; 1.26-18.0), as well as parenteral nutrition (OR 4.17; 95% CI; 1.06-16.31) was statistically significant according to bivariate analysis. However, no risk factors for thrombosis were found in the multivariate analysis. CONCLUSIONS: Obstruction and thrombosis of CVL inserted in a Pediatric Intensive Care Unit are relatively common complications. CVL duration is an independent risk factor for any line obstruction.

[Kinetics of C-reactive protein and procalcitonin after paediatric cardiac surgery]. / Cinética de la proteína C reactiva y la procalcitonina en el postoperatorio de cirugía cardíaca en niños.

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES: The systemic inflammatory response syndrome developed after cardiac surgery impedes the detection of complications. The aim of our study was to examine the behaviour of C-reactive protein (CRP) and procalcitonin (PCT), as well as to evaluate its relationship with severity and to analyse its usefulness in the identification of complications. METHODS: A total of 59 children who underwent cardiac surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass were prospectively studied. CRP and PCT were determined after surgery and at 24, 48 and 72 hours. The relationships between both parameters and the clinical severity were analysed (evaluated with PRISM and TISS scoring systems), as well as with the incidence of complications (infectious and haemodynamics). RESULTS: Serum concentrations of CRP and PCT increased in the first 24 hours after surgery, with a gradual decrease over the following days. There was no association between CRP and severity or development of complications. A moderate correlation was observed between PCT after surgery, at 24 and 48 hours, and PRISM (r=0.548; 0.434 and 0.446) and a low correlation between PCT and TISS. When studying the identification of complications, we obtained cut-off values of PCT>0.17ng/ml (Ss 73.3%; Sp 72.2%) and PCT>1.98ng/ml (Ss 57.1%; Sp 87%) immediately and 48 hours after surgery. No differences were found in CPR and PCT levels among patients with infectious and haemodynamics complications. CONCLUSIONS: CPR does not correlate with the severity or the incidence of complications after paediatric cardiac surgery. PCT correlates with clinical severity and may be able to detect post-surgical complications.

[Management of pediatric multiple trauma patients. Perspective of the pediatric intensive care unit]. / Asistencia al paciente politraumatizado. Realidad actual desde la perspectiva de las unidades de cuidados intensivos.

OBJECTIVE: To study the epidemiology and management of pediatric trauma patients as well as the organizational, human and technical resources dedicated to these children from the perspective of the pediatric intensive care unit (PICU). MATERIAL AND METHODS: A standardized data collection form was sent to 43 PICUs in Spain. Items inquired about the existence of training courses, trauma clinical practice guidelines and trauma registers, and which physician was in charge of trauma patients. Data on casuistics, the age of trauma patients, and the availability of human and technical resources, were also recorded. RESULTS: Twenty-four PICUs completed the questionnaire. The PICU physician was responsible for trauma patient care in 66% of the hospitals. No training courses were available in 59% of the hospitals. No trauma register was available in 62% of the hospitals. Trauma patients represented 11% of PICU admissions, and most patients were aged up to 14 years old. An anesthetist was always at the hospital in 100% of the hospitals. A radiologist and traumatologist were always at the hospital in 91%, a neurosurgeon in 66% and a pediatric surgeon in 50%. The remaining surgical and medical specialties were on call. Continuous intracranial pressure monitoring was available in 87% of the PICUs, jugular venous saturation monitoring in 54% and continuous electroencephalogram and transcranial Doppler ultrasound in 50%. Computed tomography and ultrasound were available at all times in all hospitals. Magnetic nuclear resonance and echocardiography were available at all times in 44% of the hospitals, and arteriography in 42%. CONCLUSION: In Spain, the organization of pediatric trauma management is based on pediatric teams under the supervision of a PICU physician. Some hospitals show a lack of technical and human resources. Therefore, the minimum criteria required to consider a hospital as a pediatric trauma center should be established. Trauma training courses are required.

[Prognostic indexes of mortality in pediatric intensive care units]. / Indices pronósticos de mortalidad en cuidados intensivos pediátricos.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the validity of the Pediatric Risk of Mortality score (PRISM), the Pediatric Index of Mortality (PIM) and the PIM 2 in two Spanish pediatric intensive care units. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We prospectively studied 241 critically ill children consecutively admitted over a 6-month period. The overall performance of the scoring systems was assessed by the Standardized Mortality Ratio (SMR), comparing observed deaths with expected deaths by each index. Discrimination (the ability of the model to distinguish between patients who live and those who die) was quantified by calculating the area under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve. Calibration (the accuracy of mortality risk predictions) was calculated with the Hosmer-Lemeshow goodness-of-fit test, in which statistical calibration is evidenced by p > 0.05. RESULTS: The mortality rate was 4.1 %. PRISM overestimated mortality (SMR = 0.44). Discrimination was better for PRISM and PIM 2 than for PIM (areas under ROC curves: 0.883, 0.871, and 0.800 respectively), with no significant differences. Finally, calibration was acceptable for PIM 2 (x2 (8) = 4.8730, p 0.8461) and for PIM (x2 (8) = 8.0876, p 0.5174), but no statistical calibration was found for PRISM (x2 (8) = 15.0281, p 0.0133). CONCLUSIONS: PIM and PIM 2 showed better discrimination and calibration than PRISM in a heterogeneous group of children in Spanish critical care units. However, these results should be confirmed in a larger study.

[Noninvasive ventilation in a pediatric intensive care unit]. / Aplicación de ventilación no invasiva en una unidad de cuidados intensivos pediátricos.

OBJECTIVE: To describe our experience of noninvasive positive-pressure ventilation (NIPPV). PATIENTS AND METHODS: We performed a retrospective study of all patients who underwent NIPPV in our unit over an 18-month period. To assess the effectiveness of NIPPV, respiratory rate, heart rate, inspired oxygen, and arterial blood gases PaO2 and PaCO2 were evaluated before and 2 hours after initiating NIPPV. RESULTS: Twenty-three patients with a mean age of 36.7 months underwent a total of 24 NIPPV trials. Indications for NIPPV were: hypoxemic acute respiratory failure (14 trials), hypercapnic acute respiratory failure (four trials), and postextubation respiratory failure (six trials). Conventional ventilators were used in 10 trials and specific noninvasive ventilators were used in 14. The main interfaces used were buconasal mask in patients older than 1 year, and pharyngeal prong in infants aged less than 1 year. In all groups, significant decreases in respiratory distress, defined as a reduction in tachypnea (45 +/- 16 breaths/min pre-treatment vs. 34 +/- 12 breaths/min post-treatment; p = 0.001), and tachycardia (148 +/- 27 beats/min pre-treatment vs. 122 +/- 22 beats/min (after or post) post-treatment; p < 0.001) were observed after initiation of NIPPV. The oxygenation index PaO2/FiO2 also improved (190 +/- 109 pre-treatment vs. 260 +/- 118 post-treatment; p = 0.010). Five patients (20.8 %) required intubation and conventional mechanical ventilation after NIPPV, of which three were aged less than 6 months. CONCLUSIONS: NIPPV should be considered as a ventilatory support option in the treatment of acute respiratory failure in selected children.

[Acute renal failure in critically-ill children. A preliminary study]. / Insuficiencia renal aguda en niños críticamente enfermos. Estudio preliminar.

OBJECTIVE: To analyze the characteristics of acute renal failure (ARF) in critically-ill children and develop a protocol for a multicenter study. METHODS: A prospective, descriptive study was performed in four pediatric intensive care units (PICU) over 5 months. Epidemiological, clinical and laboratory data from children aged between 7 days and 16 years with ARF were analyzed. Premature neonates were excluded. RESULTS: There were 16 episodes of ARF in 14 patients and 62.5 % were male (mean 6 SD age: 50 +/- 49 months). The incidence of ARF was 2.5 % of PICU patients. The most frequent primary diseases were nephro-urological (50 %) and heart disease (31 %). The main risk factors for ARF were hypovolemia (44 %) and hypotension (37 %). Six patients (37.5 %) developed ARF following surgery (cardiac surgery in four, kidney transplantation in one and urological surgery in one). Furosemide was used in 13 patients (as continuous perfusion in nine), inotropes in nine and renal replacement therapy in 12. Medical complications were found in 94 % and some organic dysfunction was found in 81 %. The length of stay in the PICU was 21 +/- 21 days. The probability of death according to the Pediatric Risk of Mortality was 14 +/- 8 %. Five patients died (36 % of the patients and 31.2 % of ARF episodes). CONCLUSIONS: The incidence of ARF in critically-ill children is low but remains a cause of high mortality and prolonged stay in the PICU. Mortality was caused not by renal failure but by multiple organ failure.

[Pediatric brain death and donation in Asturias]. / Muerte encefálica y donación en población infantil.

BACKGROUND: Brain death is the irreversible cessation of intracranial neurologic function and is considered as the person's death. The objective of this study was to describe the characteristics of pediatric donors in the Hospital Central de Asturias from October 1995 to October 2002. METHODS: We performed a retrospective and descriptive study of the dead children who were potential donors in the pediatric intensive care unit (PICU). RESULTS: Of 43 dead children, 15 (34.9 %) were diagnosed with brain death. In four patients (family refusal in one, sepsis in two and brain tumor in one) there was no donation. In all patients, the diagnosis of brain death was based on clinical examination and electroencephalogram. Doppler ultrasonography and technetium-99m hexamethylpropyleneamineoxamine (Tc-99-HMPAO) scanning was also performed in three and nine patients respectively. The mean age of the donors was 8.1 years (range: 13 months-15 years). The male/female ratio was 3/1. The cause of death was multiple trauma in six children, brain hemorrhage in three, cardiac arrhythmias in three, lightning strike in one, diabetic ketoacidosis in one, septic shock in one and hypovolemic shock in one. The median interval between admission and brain death was 1.4 days (range: 3 hours-12 days). The time of organ support between brain death and donation was 8.4 hours (range: 6-13 hours). The most frequent complications after brain death were central diabetes insipidus in 90.9 % of the patients, hyperglycemia in 54.5 % and hypokalemia in 45.4 %. During support 72.7 % of the patients required inotropic aid. CONCLUSIONS: In our PICU more than one-third of the dead children suffered brain death, and most became donors. The most frequent cause of brain death was multiple trauma. Coordination with the transplant team and the training of medical staff are important to achieve a high percentage of donations.

[Estimation of creatinine clearance by the height/plasma creatinine formula in critically-ill children]. / Estimación del aclaramiento de creatinina por la talla en pacientes críticamente enfermos.

INTRODUCTION: Critically-ill children frequently show impaired renal function, necessitating adjustment of drug dosages. Our objectives were to study estimated creatinine clearance through the correlation between the height/plasma creatinine formula (CrClest) and measured creatinine clearance (CrClms) and to examine whether CrClest over- or underestimates CrClms by analyzing the influence of diagnosis, severity, and the practical consequences. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Seventy-seven patients admitted to the pediatric intensive care unit were included. CrClms was calculated using serum creatinine and creatinine in urine collected over 24 hours. CrClest was estimated using serum creatinine, height, and a constant. The difference between CrClms and CrClest was expressed as a percentage: (CrClms CrClest) x 100/CrClms. Differences of greater than 15 % were considered poor estimates. ResultsThe mean percentage difference was 29.2 (standard error: 39.9). There were no differences among diagnoses in the distribution of significant bias, although the frequency of metabolic diagnoses was high. Incorrect evaluation of CrClest would result in a therapeutic error in 11.69 % of the cases, with overdosage in 10.39 %. The Pediatric Risk of Mortality (PRISM) score was higher (p < 0.05) in patients at risk for overdosage. CONCLUSIONS: CrClest estimation using the height/plasma creatinine formula was not an accurate method in critically ill children. In 10.39 % of patients with more severe illness, the dosage of renally excreted drugs would be too high. The highest risk was found in patients with metabolic and neurological diagnoses.

[Long QT syndrome presented as epilepsy]. / Síndrome de QT largo presentado como epilepsia.

INTRODUCTION: Long QT syndrome is characterised by an alteration in cardiac repolarisation that brings about ventricular arrhythmias. The resulting cerebral hypoxia leads to fainting and convulsions that, in up to 10% of cases, are interpreted as epilepsy. CASE REPORT: We report the case of a patient of paediatric age who was affected by an isolated presentation of congenital long QT syndrome, which had initially been diagnosed as idiopathic epilepsy, and who suffered a sudden loss of consciousness while doing exercise. The initial electrocardiographic monitoring revealed a ventricular tachycardia in torsades de pointes, which was reversed by advanced cardiopulmonary revival manoeuvres. At 12 days after admission, there was an absence of electrical brain activity and brain death resulted. CONCLUSION: The high mortality among symptomatic patients affected by long QT syndrome and the effectiveness of the treatment highlight the importance of a correct diagnosis. A detailed clinical history and an electroencephalogram with a simultaneous electrocardiogram (ECG) recording, together with continuous EEG recording for 24 hours, with the manual evaluation of the corrected QT, would all help in the identification of unsuspected cases. A complete study of the family, including the possible associated mutations, could be a new form of early diagnosis.

[Use of peripherally inserted multilumen catheters as an alternative to central venous access]. / Utilización de catéteres multilumen de acceso periférico como alternativa a las vías centrales.

BACKGROUND: In the last decade alternatives to central venous lines in critically ill children have been developed. Multilumen catheters have classically been used through central venous access but there are no reports on their use as peripherally inserted central lines. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We performed a retrospective study of patients admitted to the pediatric intensive care unit in the previous 3 years who underwent catheterization with peripherally inserted central venous lines. The catheters were four French, double-lumen and 30-cm long. RESULTS: Twenty-two catheters were used in 22 children (mean age: 8.3 years; range 1.7-13.8). The catheters remained in place for a mean of 7.2 days. Ninety percent of the catheters were placed in antecubital veins. The catheters were used to administer antibiotics (59 %), other drugs (81 %), total parenteral nutrition (50 %) and blood (9 %). Central venous pressure monitoring was performed in eight patients. Complications were found in five patients (22 %): three cases of phlebitis, one catheter occlusion and one infection at the site of insertion. No significant differences were found in the complication rate between peripherally inserted catheters and 298 central venous catheters inserted in our unit in the same time period. CONCLUSIONS: Peripherally inserted multilumen catheters may be an alternative in the management of critically-ill pediatric patients.

[Care of critically-ill children in Asturias (Spain): characteristics and effectiveness]. / Asistencia a los niños críticamente enfermos en Asturias: características y efectividad.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the work performed in the Pediatric Intensive Care Unit of the Hospital Central de Asturias (Spain) in its first 5 years and to assess the effectiveness of the care provided. METHODS: A prospective study of the characteristics of critically-ill children admitted from 1996 to 2000 was performed. Effectiveness was defined as the ratio of observed to expected mortality, determined by pediatric risk of mortality (PRISM) score calculated 24 hours after admission. RESULTS: The median age of critically-ill children was 38 months and the mean length of stay was 6.8 days. Forty percent of the patients were transferred from other hospitals in Asturias and Leon. The most frequent causes of admission were respiratory, neurological and infectious diseases, and trauma. Overall mortality was 4.3 %. Over the years the severity of the patients increased with a consequent rise in mean length of stay, use of central venous access and mechanical ventilation. Forty-two percent of deaths were expected. The effectiveness of care was high among high-risk patients, among those with respiratory and metabolic diseases and in the postoperative period but was low among patients with hematologic and gastrointestinal diseases. Effectiveness increased over time. CONCLUSIONS: Studies analyzing pediatric intensive care units are useful for assessing and improving the effectiveness of care in these centers.

[Uric acid as a prognostic marker in critically ill patients]. / Acido úrico como marcador pronóstico en pacientes críticamente enfermos.

BACKGROUND: Elevated uric acid concentrations reflect adenosine triphosphate degradation and suggest poor prognosis since they indicate a cellular bioenergetic crisis. OBJECTIVE: To study uric acid concentrations as a prognostic marker of disease severity in critically ill children. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Seventy-eight patients admitted to our pediatric intensive care unit with different diseases were prospectively studied. Thirty-five patients with meningococcal infection were retrospectively studied. Data on uric acid concentrations, diagnosis, length of stay, age, weight, the therapeutic intervention scoring system (TISS) and the pediatric risk of mortality score (PRISM) were collected. In patients with meningococcal infection severity was evaluated by studying evolution (death and the presence of sequelae or otherwise). RESULTS: Uric acid concentrations on admission were significantly correlated with TISS on the first day (r 0.260; p 0.023) and with PRISM during the first 24 hours (r 0.277; p 0.015). In patients without craniocerebral trauma, correlations between uric acid concentrations and PRISM during the first 24 hours (r 0.524; p < 0.001) and correlations between uric acid concentrations with TISS on day 1 (r 0.483; p < 0.001) and day 2 (r 0.373; p 0.014) improved. In patients with craniocerebral trauma no significant correlations were found between uric acid and any of the other variables. In patients with meningococcal infection, uric acid concentrations on admission were closely related to evolution (uric acid concentrations were 13.20 8.2 mg/dl in patients who died, 8.01 1.77 mg/dl in those with sequelae and 4.72 1.84 mg/dl in in those without sequelae; p < 0.003). CONCLUSIONS: Serum uric acid concentrations can be considered as a marker of severity in critically ill patients without craniocerebral trauma and especially in patients with meningococcal infection.