Mass spectrometry imaging of SOD1 protein-metal complexes in SOD1G93A transgenic mice implicates demetalation with pathology.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is characterized by degeneration of motor neurons in the central nervous system (CNS). Mutations in the metalloenzyme SOD1 are associated with inherited forms of ALS and cause a toxic gain of function thought to be mediated by dimer destabilization and misfolding. SOD1 binds two Cu and two Zn ions in its homodimeric form. We have applied native ambient mass spectrometry imaging to visualize the spatial distributions of intact metal-bound SOD1G93A complexes in SOD1G93A transgenic mouse spinal cord and brain sections and evaluated them against disease pathology. The molecular specificity of our approach reveals that metal-deficient SOD1G93A species are abundant in CNS structures correlating with ALS pathology whereas fully metalated SOD1G93A species are homogenously distributed. Monomer abundance did not correlate with pathology. We also show that the dimer-destabilizing post-translational modification, glutathionylation, has limited influence on the spatial distribution of SOD1 dimers.

Laser capture microdissection and native mass spectrometry for spatially-resolved analysis of intact protein assemblies in tissue.

Previously, we have shown that native ambient mass spectrometry imaging allows the spatial mapping of folded proteins and their complexes in thin tissue sections. Subsequent top-down native ambient mass spectrometry of adjacent tissue section enables protein identification. The challenges associated with protein identification by this approach are (i) the low abundance of proteins in tissue and associated long data acquisition timescales and (ii) irregular spatial distributions which hamper targeted sampling of the relevant tissue location. Here, we demonstrate that these challenges may be overcome through integration of laser capture microdissection in the workflow. We show identification of intact protein assemblies in rat liver tissue and apply the approach to identification of proteins in the granular layer of rat cerebellum.

High-Throughput Deconvolution of Native Protein Mass Spectrometry Imaging Data Sets for Mass Domain Analysis.

Protein mass spectrometry imaging (MSI) with electrospray-based ambient ionization techniques, such as nanospray desorption electrospray ionization (nano-DESI), generates data sets in which each pixel corresponds to a mass spectrum populated by peaks corresponding to multiply charged protein ions. Importantly, the signal associated with each protein is split among multiple charge states. These peaks can be transformed into the mass domain by spectral deconvolution. When proteins are imaged under native/non-denaturing conditions to retain non-covalent interactions, deconvolution is particularly valuable in helping interpret the data. To improve the acquisition speed, signal-to-noise ratio, and sensitivity, native MSI is usually performed using mass resolving powers that do not provide isotopic resolution, and conventional algorithms for deconvolution of lower-resolution data are not suitable for these large data sets. UniDec was originally developed to enable rapid deconvolution of complex protein mass spectra. Here, we developed an updated feature set harnessing the high-throughput module, MetaUniDec, to deconvolve each pixel of native MSI data sets and transform m/z-domain image files to the mass domain. New tools enable the reading, processing, and output of open format .imzML files for downstream analysis. Transformation of data into the mass domain also provides greater accessibility, with mass information readily interpretable by users of established protein biology tools such as sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis.

Tissue Washing Improves Native Ambient Mass Spectrometry Detection of Membrane Proteins Directly from Tissue.

Native ambient mass spectrometry enables the in situ analysis of proteins and their complexes directly from tissue, providing both structural and spatial information. Until recently, the approach was applied exclusively to the analysis of soluble proteins; however, there is a drive for new techniques that enable analysis of membrane proteins. Here we demonstrate native ambient mass spectrometry of membrane proteins, including ß-barrel and α-helical (single and multipass) integral membrane proteins and membrane-associated proteins incorporating lipid anchors, by integration of a simple washing protocol to remove soluble proteins. Mass spectrometry imaging revealed that washing did not disrupt the spatial distributions of the membrane and membrane-associated proteins. Some delocalization of the remaining soluble proteins was observed.

Liquid Extraction Surface Analysis Mass Spectrometry Imaging of Denatured Intact Proteins.

Liquid extraction surface analysis (LESA) is an ambient surface sampling technique that can be coupled with mass spectrometry (MS) to analyze analytes directly from biological substrates such as tissue sections. LESA MS involves liquid microjunction sampling of a substrate by use of a discrete volume of solvent followed by nano-electrospray ionization. As the technique makes use of electrospray ionization, it lends itself to the analysis of intact proteins. Here, we describe the use of LESA MS to analyze and image the distribution of intact denatured proteins from thin fresh frozen tissue sections.

Mass Spectrometry Detection and Imaging of a Non-Covalent Protein-Drug Complex in Tissue from Orally Dosed Rats.

Here, we demonstrate detection by mass spectrometry of an intact protein-drug complex directly from liver tissue from rats that had been orally dosed with the drug. The protein-drug complex comprised fatty acid binding protein 1, FABP1, non-covalently bound to the small molecule therapeutic bezafibrate. Moreover, we demonstrate spatial mapping of the [FABP1+bezafibrate] complex across a thin section of liver by targeted mass spectrometry imaging. This work is the first demonstration of in situ mass spectrometry analysis of a non-covalent protein-drug complex formed in vivo and has implications for early stage drug discovery by providing a route to target-drug characterization directly from the physiological environment.

Native Ambient Mass Spectrometry of an Intact Membrane Protein Assembly and Soluble Protein Assemblies Directly from Lens Tissue.

Membrane proteins constitute around two-thirds of therapeutic targets but present a significant challenge for structural analysis due to their low abundance and solubility. Existing methods for structural analysis rely on over-expression and/or purification of the membrane protein, thus removing any links back to actual physiological environment. Here, we demonstrate mass spectrometry analysis of an intact oligomeric membrane protein directly from tissue. Aquaporin-0 exists as a 113 kDa tetramer, with each subunit featuring six transmembrane helices. We report the characterisation of the intact assembly directly from a section of sheep eye lens without sample pre-treatment. Protein identity was confirmed by mass measurement of the tetramer and subunits, together with top-down mass spectrometry, and the spatial distribution was determined by mass spectrometry imaging. Our approach allows simultaneous analysis of soluble protein assemblies in the tissue.

Quantitative Characterization of Three Carbonic Anhydrase Inhibitors by LESA Mass Spectrometry.

Liquid extraction surface analysis (LESA) coupled to native mass spectrometry (MS) presents unique analytical opportunities due to its sensitivity, speed, and automation. Here, we examine whether this tool can be used to quantitatively probe protein-ligand interactions through calculation of equilibrium dissociation constants (Kd values). We performed native LESA MS analyses for a well-characterized system comprising bovine carbonic anhydrase II and the ligands chlorothiazide, dansylamide, and sulfanilamide, and compared the results with those obtained from direct infusion mass spectrometry and surface plasmon resonance measurements. Two LESA approaches were considered: In one approach, the protein and ligand were premixed in solution before being deposited and dried onto a solid substrate for LESA sampling, and in the second, the protein alone was dried onto the substrate and the ligand was included in the LESA sampling solvent. Good agreement was found between the Kd values derived from direct infusion MS and LESA MS when the protein and ligand were premixed; however, Kd values determined from LESA MS measurements where the ligand was in the sampling solvent were inconsistent. Our results suggest that LESA MS is a suitable tool for quantitative analysis of protein-ligand interactions when the dried sample comprises both protein and ligand.

Native ambient mass spectrometry of intact protein assemblies directly from Escherichia coli colonies.

Here, we demonstrate that by combining electroporation with native ambient mass spectrometry, it is possible to detect intact non-covalent protein complexes directly from bacterial colonies growing on agar. Homodimers HdeA and HdeB were identified, together with the 50 kDa Mn-bound superoxide dismutase homodimer, in addition to some previously undetected monomeric proteins.

Discovery, validation, and diagnostic ability of multiple protein-based biomarkers in saliva and gingival crevicular fluid to distinguish between health and periodontal diseases.

AIM: To discover and validate differential protein biomarker expression in saliva and gingival crevicular fluid (GCF) to discriminate objectively between periodontal health and plaque-induced periodontal disease states. MATERIALS AND METHODS: One-hundred and ninety participants were recruited from two centres (Birmingham and Newcastle upon Tyne, UK) comprising healthy, gingivitis, periodontitis, and edentulous donors. Samples from the Birmingham cohort were analysed by quantitative mass spectrometry proteomics for biomarker discovery. Shortlisted candidate proteins were then verified by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in both cohorts. Leave-one-out cross validation logistic regression analysis was used to identify the best performing biomarker panels. RESULTS: Ninety-five proteins were identified in both GCF and saliva samples, and 15 candidate proteins were selected based upon differences discovered between the donor groups. The best performing panels to distinguish between: health or gingivitis and periodontitis contained matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP9), S100A8, alpha-1-acid glycoprotein (A1AGP), pyruvate kinase, and age (area under the curve [AUC] 0.970); health and gingivitis contained MMP9, S100A8, A1AGP, and pyruvate kinase, but not age (AUC 0.768); and mild to moderate and advanced periodontitis contained MMP9, S100A8, A1AGP, pyruvate kinase, and age (AUC 0.789). CONCLUSIONS: Biomarker panels containing four proteins with and without age as a further parameter can distinguish between periodontal health and disease states.

Native Ambient Mass Spectrometry Enables Analysis of Intact Endogenous Protein Assemblies up to 145 kDa Directly from Tissue.

Untargeted label-free interrogation of proteins in their functional form directly from their physiological environment promises to transform life sciences research by providing unprecedented insight into their transient interactions with other biomolecules and xenobiotics. Native ambient mass spectrometry (NAMS) shows great potential for the structural analysis of endogenous protein assemblies directly from tissues; however, to date, this has been limited to assemblies of low molecular weight (<20 kDa) or very high abundance (hemoglobin tetramer in blood vessels, RidA homotrimer in kidney cortex tissues). The present work constitutes a step change for NAMS of protein assemblies: we demonstrate the detection and identification of a range of intact endogenous protein assemblies with various stoichiometries (dimer, trimer, and tetramer) from a range of tissue types (brain, kidney, liver) by the use of multiple NAMS techniques. Crucially, we demonstrate a greater than twofold increase in accessible molecular weight (up to 145 kDa). In addition, spatial distributions of protein assemblies up to 94 kDa were mapped in brain and kidney by nanospray desorption electrospray ionization (nano-DESI) mass spectrometry imaging.

Native Ambient Mass Spectrometry Imaging of Ligand-Bound and Metal-Bound Proteins in Rat Brain.

Label-free spatial mapping of the noncovalent interactions of proteins in their tissue environment has the potential to revolutionize life sciences research by providing opportunities for the interrogation of disease progression, drug interactions, and structural and molecular biology more broadly. Here, we demonstrate mass spectrometry imaging of endogenous intact noncovalent protein-ligand complexes in rat brain. The spatial distributions of a range of ligand-bound and metal-bound proteins were mapped in thin tissue sections by use of nanospray-desorption electrospray ionization. Proteins were identified directly from the tissue by top-down mass spectrometry. Three GDP-binding proteins (ADP ribosylation factor ARF3, ARF1, and GTPase Ran) were detected, identified, and imaged in their ligand-bound form. The nature of the ligand was confirmed by multiple rounds of tandem mass spectrometry. In addition, the metal-binding proteins parvalbumin-α and carbonic anhydrase 2 were detected, identified, and imaged in their native form, i.e., parvalbumin-α + 2Ca2+ and carbonic anhydrase + Zn2+. GTPase Ran was detected with both GDP and Mg2+ bound. Several natively monomeric proteins displaying distinct spatial distributions were also identified by top-down mass spectrometry. Protein mass spectrometry imaging was achieved at a spatial resolution of 200 µm.

Native Ambient Mass Spectrometry of an Intact Membrane Protein Assembly and Soluble Protein Assemblies Directly from Lens Tissue.

Membrane proteins constitute around two-thirds of therapeutic targets but present a significant challenge for structural analysis due to their low abundance and solubility. Existing methods for structural analysis rely on over-expression and/or purification of the membrane protein, thus removing any links back to actual physiological environment. Here, we demonstrate mass spectrometry analysis of an intact oligomeric membrane protein directly from tissue. Aquaporin-0 exists as a 113 kDa tetramer, with each subunit featuring six transmembrane helices. We report the characterisation of the intact assembly directly from a section of sheep eye lens without sample pre-treatment. Protein identity was confirmed by mass measurement of the tetramer and subunits, together with top-down mass spectrometry, and the spatial distribution was determined by mass spectrometry imaging. Our approach allows simultaneous analysis of soluble protein assemblies in the tissue.

Mass Spectrometry Detection and Imaging of a Non-Covalent Protein-Drug Complex in Tissue from Orally Dosed Rats.

Here, we demonstrate detection by mass spectrometry of an intact protein-drug complex directly from liver tissue from rats that had been orally dosed with the drug. The protein-drug complex comprised fatty acid binding protein 1, FABP1, non-covalently bound to the small molecule therapeutic bezafibrate. Moreover, we demonstrate spatial mapping of the [FABP1+bezafibrate] complex across a thin section of liver by targeted mass spectrometry imaging. This work is the first demonstration of in situ mass spectrometry analysis of a non-covalent protein-drug complex formed in vivo and has implications for early stage drug discovery by providing a route to target-drug characterization directly from the physiological environment.

Liquid Extraction Surface Analysis Mass Spectrometry of ESKAPE Pathogens.

The ESKAPE pathogens (Enterococcus faecium, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Enterobacter cloacae) represent clinically important bacterial species that are responsible for most hospital-acquired drug-resistant infections; hence, the need for rapid identification is of high importance. Previous work has demonstrated the suitability of liquid extraction surface analysis mass spectrometry (LESA MS) for the direct analysis of colonies of two of the ESKAPE pathogens (Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa) growing on agar. Here, we apply LESA MS to the remaining four ESKAPE species (E. faecium E745, K. pneumoniae KP257, A. baumannii AYE, and E. cloacae S11) as well as E. faecalis V583 (a close relative of E. faecium) and a clinical isolate of A. baumannii AC02 using an optimized solvent sampling system. In each case, top-down LESA MS/MS was employed for protein identification. In total, 24 proteins were identified from 37 MS/MS spectra by searching against protein databases for the individual species. The MS/MS spectra for the identified proteins were subsequently searched against multiple databases from multiple species in an automated data analysis workflow with a view to determining the accuracy of identification of unknowns. Out of 24 proteins, 19 were correctly assigned at the protein and species level, corresponding to an identification success rate of 79%.

Native Mass Spectrometry Imaging of Proteins and Protein Complexes by Nano-DESI.

Previously, we have demonstrated native mass spectrometry imaging (native MSI) in which the spatial distribution of proteins maintained in their native-like, folded conformations was determined using liquid extraction surface analysis (LESA). While providing an excellent testbed for proof of principle, the spatial resolution of LESA is currently limited for imaging primarily by the physical size of the sampling pipette tip. Here, we report the adoption of nanospray-desorption electrospray ionization (nano-DESI) for native MSI, delivering substantial improvements in resolution versus native LESA MSI. In addition, native nano-DESI may be used for location-targeted top-down proteomics analysis directly from tissue. Proteins, including a homodimeric complex not previously detected by native MSI, were identified through a combination of collisional activation, high-resolution MS and proton transfer charge reduction.

Native Mass Spectrometry Imaging and In Situ Top-Down Identification of Intact Proteins Directly from Tissue.

Mass spectrometry imaging (MSI) provides information on the spatial distribution of molecules within a biological substrate without the requirement for labeling. Its broad specificity, i.e., the capability to spatially profile any analyte ion detected, constitutes a major advantage over other imaging techniques. A separate branch of mass spectrometry, native mass spectrometry, provides information relating to protein structure through retention of solution-phase interactions in the gas phase. Integration of MSI and native mass spectrometry ("native MSI") affords opportunities for simultaneous acquisition of spatial and structural information on proteins directly from their physiological environment. Here, we demonstrate significant improvements in native MSI and associated protein identification of intact proteins and protein assemblies in thin sections of rat kidney by use of liquid extraction surface analysis on a state-of-the-art Orbitrap mass spectrometer optimized for intact protein analysis. Proteins of up to 47 kDa, including a trimeric protein complex, were imaged and identified.

Direct identification of bacterial and human proteins from infected wounds in living 3D skin models.

Trauma is one of the leading causes of death in people under the age of 49 and complications due to wound infection are the primary cause of death in the first few days after injury. The ESKAPE pathogens are a group of bacteria that are a leading cause of hospital-acquired infections and a major concern in terms of antibiotic resistance. Here, we demonstrate a novel and highly accurate approach for the rapid identification of ESKAPE pathogens (Enterococcus faecium, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Enterobacter spp.) directly from infected wounds in 3D in vitro skin models. Wounded skin models were inoculated with bacteria and left to incubate. Bacterial proteins were identified within minutes, directly from the wound, by liquid extraction surface analysis mass spectrometry. This approach was able to distinguish closely related strains and, unlike genomic approaches, can be modified to provide dynamic information about pathogen behaviour at the wound site. In addition, since human skin proteins were also identified, this method offers the opportunity to analyse both host and pathogen biomarkers during wound infection in near real-time.

Differential responses to kinase inhibition in FGFR2-addicted triple negative breast cancer cells: a quantitative phosphoproteomics study.

Fibroblast Growth Factor (FGF) dependent signalling is frequently activated in cancer by a variety of different mechanisms. However, the downstream signal transduction pathways involved are poorly characterised. Here a quantitative differential phosphoproteomics approach, SILAC, is applied to identify FGF-regulated phosphorylation events in two triple- negative breast tumour cell lines, MFM223 and SUM52, that exhibit amplified expression of FGF receptor 2 (FGFR2) and are dependent on continued FGFR2 signalling for cell viability. Comparative Gene Ontology proteome analysis revealed that SUM52 cells were enriched in proteins associated with cell metabolism and MFM223 cells enriched in proteins associated with cell adhesion and migration. FGFR2 inhibition by SU5402 impacts a significant fraction of the observed phosphoproteome of these cells. This study expands the known landscape of FGF signalling and identifies many new targets for functional investigation. FGF signalling pathways are found to be flexible in architecture as both shared, and divergent, responses to inhibition of FGFR2 kinase activity in the canonical RAF/MAPK/ERK/RSK and PI3K/AKT/PDK/mTOR/S6K pathways are identified. Inhibition of phosphorylation-dependent negative-feedback pathways is observed, defining mechanisms of intrinsic resistance to FGFR2 inhibition. These findings have implications for the therapeutic application of FGFR inhibitors as they identify both common and divergent responses in cells harbouring the same genetic lesion and pathways of drug resistance.