Variation, mosaicism and degeneracy in the hominin foot.

The fossil record is scarce and incomplete by nature. Animals and ecological processes devour soft tissue and important bony details over time and, when the dust settles, we are faced with a patchy record full of variation. Fossil taxa are usually defined by craniodental characteristics, so unless postcranial bones are found associated with a skull, assignment to taxon is unstable. Naming a locomotor category based on fossil bone morphology by analogy to living hominoids is not uncommon, and when no single locomotor label fits, postcrania are often described as exhibiting a 'mosaic' of traits. Here, we contend that the unavoidable variation that characterises the fossil record can be described far more rigorously based on extensive work in human neurobiology and neuroanatomy, movement sciences and motor control and biomechanics research. In neurobiology, degeneracy is a natural mechanism of adaptation allowing system elements that are structurally different to perform the same function. This concept differs from redundancy as understood in engineering, where the same function is performed by identical elements. Assuming degeneracy, structurally different elements are able to produce different outputs in a range of environmental contexts, favouring ecological robusticity by enabling adaptations. Furthermore, as degeneracy extends to genome level, genetic variation is sustained, so that genes which might benefit an organism in a different environment remain part of the genome, favouring species' evolvability.

Field location and player roles as constraints on emergent 1-vs-1 interpersonal patterns of play in football.

This study examined effects of player roles on interpersonal patterns of coordination that sustain decision-making in 1-vs-1 sub-phases of football in different field locations near the goal (left-, middle- and right zone). Participants were fifteen U-16yrs players from a local competitive amateur team. To measure interpersonal patterns of coordination in the 1-vs-1 dyads we recorded: (i) the relative distance value between each attacker and defender to the centre of the goal, and (ii), the relative angle between the centre of the goal, each defender and attacker. Results revealed how variations in field locations near the goal (left-, middle- and right-zones) constrained the relative distance and relative angle values that emerged between them and the goal. It reveals that relative position of the goal is a key informational variable that sustained participants' behaviours for dribbling and shooting. Higher values of relative distance and angle were observed in the middle zone, compared to other zones. Players' roles also constitute a constraint on the interpersonal coordination for dribbling and shooting. Additionally, it seems that players' foot preference constrains the dynamics of interpersonal patterns of coordination between participants, especially in left and right zones. The findings suggest that to increase participants' opportunities for action, coaches should account with field positions, players' roles and preference foot.

Temporal and spatial occlusion of advanced visual information constrains movement (re)organization in one-handed catching behaviors.

Dynamic interceptive actions are performed under severe spatial and temporal constraints. Here, behavioral processes underpinning anticipation in one-handed catching were examined using novel technology to implement a spatial and temporal occlusion design. Video footage of an actor throwing a ball was manipulated to create four temporal and five spatial occlusion conditions. Data from twelve participants' hand kinematics and gaze behaviors were recorded while attempting to catch a projected ball synchronized with the video footage. Catching performance decreased with earlier occlusion of the footage. Movement onset of the catching hand and initiation of visual ball tracking emerged earlier when footage of the thrower was occluded at a later time point in the throwing action. Spatial occlusion did not affect catching success, although movement onset emerged later when increased visual information of the actor was occluded. Later movement onset was countered by greater maximum velocity of the catching hand. Final stages of action (e.g., grasping action of the hand) remained unchanged across both spatial and temporal conditions suggesting that later phases of the action were organized using ball flight information. Findings highlighted the importance of maintaining information-movement coupling during performance of interceptive actions, since movement behaviors were continuously (re)organized using kinematic information from a thrower's actions and ball flight information.

Adaptive behaviours of attacking futsal teams to opposition defensive formations.

This study evaluated tendencies towards flexibility/stability of coordinated behaviours in international futsal teams, considered as complex collective systems, according to changes in opposition defensive formations. Six games of two international futsal teams (Spain and Portugal) were selected for Social Network Analysis to capture the coordination tendencies that emerge in the tactical behaviours of players when performing against different defensive formations. Ball trajectories in each offensive pattern of play were notated in an adjacency matrix where each entry accounted for the linkages between 12 spatial field areas. Each offensive play was coded according to the defensive formation of an opposing team (i.e. conservative or risky formation). Results revealed similar network properties between teams when competing against more risky defensive formations, while notable differences were observed against conservative defences. Effect of defensive formation of opponents on macro network properties was observed in both the Portuguese and Spanish teams. At a meso-level, only the Spanish national team exhibited notable changes, suggesting a greater level of adaptability to unfolding performance events. The observed flexibility in tactical behaviours of the Spanish team appeared to express their greater expertise levels.

Emergent perception-action couplings regulate postural adjustments during performance of externally-timed dynamic interceptive actions.

Studies of postural coordination during performance of externally-timed interceptive actions, such as catching a ball, have been infrequent, with advanced visual information from a thrower's actions towards a catcher, typically excluded in experimental task constraints. Yet previous research suggests that manipulating participant access to such information alters their hand movements and gaze behaviours when catching. In this study, we manipulated participant access to advanced information of a thrower's actions, and from ball flight, while recording whole body kinematic and kinetic data to investigate effects on postural control during performance of interceptive actions. Twelve participants attempted to make or simulate performance of one-handed catches in three experimental conditions: when facing integrated videos of advanced visual information and ball flight only, videos of a thrower's actions only, and of ball flight only. Findings revealed when integrating advanced visual information and ball flight, and when participants were provided with ball flight information only, lower limb adjustments were primarily used to regulate posture. However, movement was initiated earlier when advanced visual information was available prior to ball flight, resulting in more controlled action and superior catching performance in the integrated condition. When advanced visual information was presented without ball flight, smaller displacements were observed in lower limb joint angles, resulting in upward projection of the centre of mass, compared to a downward trajectory when ball flight information was available, in the integrated video and ball flight, and ball-flight only conditions. Results revealed how postural coordination behaviors are dependent on specific informational constraints designed into experiments, implying that integration of task constraints in studies of human perception and action needs careful consideration.

(De)synchronization of advanced visual information and ball flight characteristics constrains emergent information-movement couplings during one-handed catching.

Advance visual information of a projection action and ball flight information is important for organizing dynamic interceptive actions like catching. However, how the central nervous system (CNS) manages the relationship between advance visual information and emerging ball flight information in regulating behavior is less well understood. Here, we sought to examine the extent that advance visual information to the CNS constrains regulation of catching actions by synchronizing and desynchronizing its relationship with ball trajectory characteristics. Novel technology was used to present video footage of an actor throwing a ball at three different speeds, integrated with information from a real ball projected by a machine set to the three speeds. The technology enabled three synchronized and six desynchronized conditions between advance visual information and subsequent ball flight trajectories. Catching performance, kinematic data from the catching hand and gaze behaviors were recorded. Findings revealed that desynchronization of video images of ball projection shaped emergent catching behaviors. Footage of slower throws, paired with faster ball projection speeds, caused catching performance decrements. Timing in early phases of action was organized by the CNS to match the advance visual information presented. In later phases, like the grasp, ball flight information constraints adapted and regulated behaviors. Gaze behaviors showed increased ball projection speed resulted in participants tracking the ball for a smaller percentage of ball flight. Findings highlighted the role of the two visual systems in perception and action, implicating the importance of coupling advanced visual information and ball flight to regulate emergent movement coordination tendencies during interceptive behaviors.

An integrated ball projection technology for the study of dynamic interceptive actions.

Dynamic interceptive actions, such as catching or hitting a ball, are important task vehicles for investigating the complex relationship between cognition, perception, and action in performance environments. Representative experimental designs have become more important recently, highlighting the need for research methods to ensure that the coupling of information and movement is faithfully maintained. However, retaining representative design while ensuring systematic control of experimental variables is challenging, due to the traditional tendency to employ methods that typically involve use of reductionist motor responses such as buttonpressing or micromovements. Here, we outline the methodology behind a custom-built, integrated ball projection technology that allows images of advanced visual information to be synchronized with ball projection. This integrated technology supports the controlled presentation of visual information to participants while they perform dynamic interceptive actions. We discuss theoretical ideas behind the integration of hardware and software, along with practical issues resolved in technological design, and emphasize how the system can be integrated with emerging developments such as mixed reality environments. We conclude by considering future developments and applications of the integrated projection technology for research in human movement behaviors.

Skill transfer, affordances and dexterity in different climbing environments.

This study explored how skills in one region of a perceptual-motor landscape of performance, created in part by previous experience in rock climbing, can shape those that emerge in another region (ice climbing). Ten novices in rock climbing and five intermediate rock climbers were observed climbing an icefall. Locations of right and left ice tools and crampons were videotaped from a frontal camera. Inter-individual variability of upper and lower limb couplings and types of action regarding icefall properties were assessed by cluster hierarchical analysis, distinguishing three clusters. Pelvis vertical displacement, duration and number of pelvis pauses were also analyzed. Experienced rock climbers were grouped in the same cluster and showed the highest range and variability of limb angular locations and coordination patterns, the highest vertical displacement and the shortest pelvis plateaux durations. Non-fluent climbers (clusters 2 and 3) showed low range and variability of limb angular locations and coordination patterns. In particular, climbers of cluster 3 exhibited the lowest vertical displacement, the longest plateaux durations and the greatest ratio between tool swinging and definitive anchorage. Our results exemplified the positive influence of skills in rock climbing on ice climbing performance, facilitated by the detection of affordances from environmental properties.

Enhanced somatosensory information decreases postural sway in older people.

The somatosensory system plays an important role in balance control and age-related declines in somatosensory function have been implicated in falls incidence. Different types of insole devices have been developed to enhance somatosensory information and improve postural stability. However, they are often too complex and expensive to integrate into daily life and textured insole surfaces may provide an inexpensive and accessible means to enhance somatosensory input. This study investigated the effects of textured insole surfaces on postural sway in ten younger and seven older participants performing standing balance tests on a force plate under three insole surface conditions: (1) barefoot; (2) with hard; and (3), soft textured insole surfaces. With each insole surface, participants were tested under two vision conditions (eyes open, closed) on two standing surfaces (firm, foam). Four 30s trials were collected for different combinations of insole surface, standing surface and vision. Centre of pressure measurements included the range and standard deviation of anterior-posterior and medial-lateral displacement, path length and the 90% confidence elliptical area. Results revealed a significant Group*Surface*Insole interaction for five of the dependent variables. Compared to younger individuals, postural sway was greater in older people on both standing surfaces in the barefoot condition. However, both textured insole surfaces reduced postural sway for the older group especially in the eyes closed condition on a foam surface. These findings suggest that textured insole surfaces can reduce postural sway in older people, particularly during more challenging balance tasks. Textured insole surfaces may afford a low-cost means of decreasing postural sway, providing an important intervention in falls prevention.

Statistical modelling of gaze behaviour as categorical time series: what you should watch to save soccer penalties.

Previous research on gaze behaviour in sport has typically reported summary fixation statistics thereby largely ignoring the temporal sequencing of gaze. In the present study on penalty kicking in soccer, our aim was to apply a Markov chain modelling method to eye movement data obtained from goalkeepers. Building on the discrete analysis of gaze employed by Dicks et al. (Atten Percept Psychophys 72(3):706-720, 2010b), we wanted to statistically model the relative probabilities of the goalkeeper's gaze being directed to different locations throughout the penalty taker's approach (Dicks et al. in Atten Percept Psychophys 72(3):706-720, 2010b). Examination of gaze behaviours under in situ and video-simulation task constraints reveals differences in information pickup for perception and action (Attention, Perception and Psychophysics 72(3), 706-720). The probabilities of fixating anatomical locations of the penalty taker were high under simulated movement response conditions. In contrast, when actually required to intercept kicks, the goalkeepers initially favoured watching the penalty taker's head but then rapidly shifted focus directly to the ball for approximately the final second prior to foot-ball contact. The increased spatio-temporal demands of in situ interceptive actions over laboratory-based simulated actions lead to different visual search strategies being used. When eye movement data are modelled as time series, it is possible to discern subtle but important behavioural characteristics that are less apparent with discrete summary statistics alone.

Networks as a novel tool for studying team ball sports as complex social systems.

This paper describes and evaluates the novel utility of network methods for understanding human interpersonal interactions within social neurobiological systems such as sports teams. We show how collective system networks are supported by the sum of interpersonal interactions that emerge from the activity of system agents (such as players in a sports team). To test this idea we trialled the methodology in analyses of intra-team collective behaviours in the team sport of water polo. We observed that the number of interactions between team members resulted in varied intra-team coordination patterns of play, differentiating between successful and unsuccessful performance outcomes. Future research on small-world networks methodologies needs to formalize measures of node connections in analyses of collective behaviours in sports teams, to verify whether a high frequency of interactions is needed between players in order to achieve competitive performance outcomes.

Effects of attentional strategies and anxiety constraints on perceptual-motor organisation of rhythmical arm movements.

Effects of anxiety on perceptual-motor organisation of rhythmical forearm movements were examined using an interrupted time series design with staggered baselines. Participants were exposed to repeated baseline sessions interrupted with two anxiety-inducing sessions. Results showed that under moderate levels of anxiety, determined from CSAI-2 and heart rate data, phase relations between oscillating forearms became more stable in in-phase (0 degrees ) and anti-phase (180 degrees ) modes, although these patterns were not maintained in baseline sessions following the anxiety manipulation. Data were consistent with participants employing a strategy of allocating greater attentional effort in stabilizing preferred co-ordination patterns under anxiety-inducing conditions. Results suggest that anxiety can temporarily act as a source of behavioural information, leading to the re-parameterisation of participants' intrinsic dynamics.

Perceptual-motor organization of children's catching behaviour under different postural constraints.

The experiment investigates the perceptual-motor organization underlying children's catching performance when the demands on the postural system are varied. For this purpose, one-handed catching performance was observed under different postural constraints in children aged 9-10 years. Two groups of eleven participants, classified as either good or poor catchers, performed one-handed catches under three different postural conditions: standing, sitting, and standing while pressing a button positioned to a postural support aid (PSA). Results revealed, first, that when seated, poor catchers approached the level of the good catchers' performance. Second, poor catchers improved their performance by using the PSA, but not to the same performance as when sitting. Third, there was no effect of postural condition on the performance of the good catchers. The performance increase in the poor catchers is attributable to a combined change in functional postural sway and better timed movement of the catching hand, made possible by exploiting the extra surface support area afforded by sitting.

"Essential noise" - enhancing variability of informational constraints benefits movement control: a comment on Waddington and Adams (2003).

This commentary proposes a dynamical systems perspective to re-interpret data from a group of international soccer players demonstrating that wearing textured insoles in soccer boots enhanced tactile information from the sole of the foot and increased movement discrimination capacity in ankle inversion sensitivity tests to levels similar to those in barefoot conditions. Theoretical arguments on the functional role of variability induced in the sensorimotor system by textured insoles, acting as a form of "essential noise" to enhance the accuracy of foot positioning are presented. It seems that, far from interfering with motor performance, variability can actually enhance perception of information to support motor performance. The addition of intermittent, intermediate levels of noise in a perceptual motor context may benefit performers by helping them to pick up information signals from background structure. Movement system variability is conceived as noise induced resonance benefiting the pick up of information to regulate behaviour. Variability can be functional in practical programmes to offset negative effects of losses in sensory sensitivity through ageing, disease, illness, or injury.

Local stability in coordinated rhythmic movements: fluctuations and relaxation times.

An experiment was conducted to examine the stability of the anti-phase and in-phase modes of coordination by means of both fluctuations and relaxation times. Participants (n=6) performed a rhythmic bimanual forearm coordination task that required them to oscillate their forearms in-phase and anti-phase while grasping two manipulanda at fixed frequencies ranging from 0.6 to 1.8 Hz. Relaxation times were measured as the time taken to return to a stable mode following the application of a transient mechanical torque. It was found that relaxation times were not different statistically across participants, frequencies, and coordinative modes. However, fluctuations, as indicated by the mean S.D. of relative phase across individual frequency plateaus, were significantly greater in the anti-phase than in the in-phase mode of coordination, p<0.05. Whilst providing new empirical support for the notion that relaxation times should be of the same order of magnitude at frequencies outside transition regions, the findings suggest that the level of stochastic noise in the anti-phase mode is greater than that of the in-phase mode. Implications are made for the future assessment of local pattern stability.

Specificity of task constraints and effects of visual demonstrations and verbal instructions in directing learners' search during skill acquisition.

In the present study, the efficacy of visual demonstrations and verbal instructions as instructional constraints on the acquisition of movement coordination was investigated. Fifteen participants performed an aiming task on 100 acquisition and 20 retention trials, under 1 of 3 conditions: a modeling group (MG), a verbally directed group (VDG), and a control group (CG). The MG observed a model intermittently throughout acquisition, whereas the VDG was verbally instructed to use the model's movement pattern. Participants in the CG received neither form of instruction. Kinematic analysis revealed that compared with verbal instructions or no instructions, visual demonstrations significantly improved participants' approximation of the model's coordination pattern. No differences were found in movement outcomes. Coordination data supported the visual perception perspective on observational learning, whereas outcome data suggested that the modeling effect is mainly a function of task constraints, that is, the novelty of a movement pattern.

Effects of manipulating relative and absolute motion information during observational learning of an aiming task.

In the visual perception perspective of observational learning, the manipulation of relative and absolute motion information in visual demonstrations optimally directs learners' search towards appropriate task solutions. We assessed the effect of emphasizing transformational information and removal of structural information using point-light kinematic displays in approximating the model's relative motion patterns. Participants viewed computer-simulated point-light demonstrations or normal video demonstrations before and intermittently throughout 100 acquisition trials with knowledge of results on an underarm modified-dart aiming task. On the next day, all participants performed 20 retention trials without demonstrations. The kinematics of spatial and temporal coordination and control variables were examined relative to the model's action, as well as performance scores. The results indicated that approximation of the model's spatial and temporal coordination and control patterns was achieved after observation of either type of demonstrations. No differences were found in movement outcomes. In a second experiment, the effects of manipulating absolute motion information by slow-motion demonstrations were examined relative to real-time demonstrations. Real-time demonstrations led to a closer approximation to the model's spatial and temporal coordination patterns and better outcome scores, contradicting predictions that slow-motion displays convey intact relative motion information. We speculate that the effect of visual demonstration speed on action perception and reproduction is a function of task constraints--that is, novelty or familiarity of relative motion of demonstrated activities.

Grasping a better understanding of the intrinsic dynamics of rhythmical and discrete prehension.

In this study, the authors examined the influence of the intrinsic dynamics of discrete and rhythmical prehension. Six adults underwent a scaling procedure in which the movement time was systematically increased so that it corresponded with 6 frequencies: 0.5, 0.75, 1.0, 1.25, 1.5, and 1.75 Hz. In posttests, participants moved at their own preferred pace. No differences were found in the relative time to final hand closure (T[rfc]) between the rhythmical and discrete conditions. The variability of T[rfc] was shown to be less at the preferred step of scaling than during the posttest. With the scaling technique, one can guide participants into more stable movement patterns than they can achieve when the metronome is not present, because, when the metronome is present, their movements become anchored to the external pacing cue. Those findings provide support for the use of a scaling technique to identify the influence of the intrinsic dynamics during rhythmical and discrete movements.

Information--movement coupling: implications for the organization of research and practice during acquisition of self-paced extrinsic timing skills.

Information--movement coupling is a fundamental concept, integral to theorizing on the coordination of goal-directed activity in ecological psychology. In this paper, we examine the implications of this concept for the design of experimental research and the organization of practice during the acquisition of movement coordination in sport tasks. The task vehicle for our analysis is interceptive actions, in particular self-paced extrinsic timing tasks exemplified by serving in sports such as volleyball. Recent research highlighting the relevance of information--movement coupling for the process of practice in sport is discussed. We conclude that information--movement coupling represents an important principle for the structural organization of research and practice in self-paced extrinsic timing tasks and that further work is required to verify its significance across a range of sport movements.

Mechanical perturbation of the wrist during one-handed catching.

In the present study, the co-ordination of grasp and transport components of one-handed catching was examined following mechanical perturbations applied to the wrist. Six skilled catchers (mean age = 27.5 years) performed 64 trials in which tennis balls were projected at approximately 8 ms-1. The trial blocks consisted of 10 non-perturbed trials (NPTs) (baseline), and a block of 54 trials of which 20 trials were perturbed. The perturbation was in the form of a resistive force (12 N) applied via a piece of cord attached to a mechanical brake. In baseline trials participants reached maximal wrist velocity closer to the time of hand-ball contact (237 ms +/- 68) than in the perturbed (309 ms +/- 61) condition. Furthermore the wrist velocity profile of five out of six participants exhibited a double peak immediately after a perturbation. However, aperture variables such as the relative moment of final hand closure (approximately 70% of overall movement time) were not typically affected. The stability of grasp and transport coupling for one-handed catching was shown to vary from trial to trial. Skilled performers exploited redundant degrees of freedom in the motor system when faced with a sudden, unexpected change in task constraints.