Ten steps towards integrated decision making for ecological restoration in cities: Rewilding the European beaver (Castor fiber) in Berlin, Germany.

Ensuring a livable city for all within the more-than-human discourse, restoration of urban ecosystems requires careful consideration of both human and non-human needs. However, traditional assessments and therefore most management plans usually fail to include the latter as a core planning requirement. This article presents and explains a 10-step method which simultaneously and actively considers both to identify potential restoration areas within urban ecosystems. To do so, a Strengths-Weaknesses-Opportunities-Threats (SWOT) analysis for the multispecies needs identification is combined with a Multicriteria Spatial Decision Support System (MCSDSS) for the spatial assessment. To validate this method, a case study of Berlin, Germany, an explicitly urban case, is presented. The aim of the study was to evaluate the ecosystem restoration (rewilding) potential of the city's riparian and riverine ecosystems through the enhancement of Eurasian beaver habitats.•Method combining SWOT analysis with MCSDSS for an integrated spatial assessment•Well-suited for multispecies (human and non-human) perspective on urban nature restoration.

Evaluating the impact of landscape configuration, patterns and composition on land surface temperature: an urban heat island study in the Megacity Lahore, Pakistan.

The urban heat island (UHI) phenomenon is negatively impacted by rapid urbanization, which significantly affects people's everyday lives, socioeconomic activities, and the urban thermal environment. This study focuses on the impact of composition, configuration, and landscape patterns on land surface temperature (LST) in Lahore, Pakistan. The study uses Landsat 5-TM and Landsat 8-OLI/TIRS data acquired over the years 2000, 2010 and 2020 to derive detailed information on land use, normalized difference vegetation index, LST, urban cooling islands (UCI), green cooling islands (GCI) and landscape metrics at the class and landscape level such as percentage of the landscape (PLAND), patch density (PD), class area (CA), largest patch index (LPI), number of patches (NP), aggregation index (AI), Landscape Shape Index (LSI), patch richness (PR), and mean patch shape index (SHAPE_MN). The study's results show that from the years 2000 to 2020, the built-up area increased by 17.57%, whereas vacant land, vegetation, and water bodies declined by 03.79%, 13.32% and 0.4% respectively. Furthermore, landscape metrics at the class level (PLAND, LSI, LPI, PD, AI, and NP) show that the landscape of Lahore is becoming increasingly heterogeneous and fragmented over time. The mean LST in the study area exhibited an increasing trend i.e. 18.87°C in 2000, 20.93°C in 2010, and 22.54°C in 2020. The significant contribution of green spaces is vital for reducing the effects of UHI and is highlighted by the fact that the mean LST of impervious surfaces is, on average, roughly 3°C higher than that of urban green spaces. The findings also demonstrate that there is a strong correlation between mean LST and both the amount of green space (which is negative) and impermeable surface (which is positive). The increasing trend of fragmentation and shape complexity highlighted a positive correlation with LST, while all area-related matrices including PLAND, CA and LPI displayed a negative correlation with LST. The mean LST was significantly correlated with the size, complexity of the shape, and aggregation of the patches of impervious surface and green space, although aggregation demonstrated the most constant and robust correlation. The results indicate that to create healthier and more comfortable environments in cities, the configuration and composition of urban impermeable surfaces and green spaces should be important considerations during the landscape planning and urban design processes.

The benefits and disbenefits associated with cultural ecosystem services of urban green spaces.

Cultural ecosystem services (CES) and disservices shape landscape planning policy to a huge extent. We focus on the benefits and disbenefits associated with CES. The study aimed to explore the co-occurrence of the benefits and disbenefits associated with CES as well as the relationship between spatial and landscape characteristics and specific benefits and disbenefits. We conducted a map-based online questionnaire among visitors of two urban green spaces in Kraków, Poland (Wolski Forest and Jordan Park). Respondents were asked to map places visited and assign them benefits and disbenefits using indicator statements. We found three bundles of benefits (connection to nature, social bonding in nature and responsibility) and five to seven bundles of disbenefits (1). The experiences (e.g., strengthening social bonds) were more concentrated whereas the identities (e.g., reflection) were more blurred spatially owing to their individualistic nature (2). The relationship between benefits/disbenefits and landscape features showed a relatively weak correlation, with a more discernible pattern observed in the case of experiences and capabilities (3). Respondents perceived more human-related disbenefits (overcrowding, noise, rubbish), exhibiting a greater geographical concentration, especially in proximity to tourist attractions (4). The ecosystem-related disbenefits (insects, allergies) were less geographically concentrated (5). Furthermore, the study unveiled differences in the perception of disbenefits across seasons. Visitors of warmer months expressed concerns about overcrowding, insects, and allergies, while those exploring the study areas in winter indicated challenges associated with darkness and snow-covered paths (6). These are important implications for management to increase the comfort of visits to green spaces.

Cooling Effect of Green Spaces on Urban Heat Island in a Chinese Megacity: Increasing Coverage versus Optimizing Spatial Distribution.

Enhancing the cooling effectiveness of green spaces (GSs) is crucial for improving urban thermal environments in the context of global warming. Increasing GS coverage and optimizing its spatial distribution individually proved to be effective urban cooling measures. However, their comparative cooling effectiveness and potential interaction remain unclear. Here, using the moving window approach and random forest algorithm, we established a robust model (R2 = 0.89 ± 0.01) to explore the relationship between GS and land surface temperature (LST) in the Chinese megacity of Guangzhou. Subsequently, the response of LST to varying GS coverage and its spatial distribution was simulated, both individually and in combination. The results indicate that GS with higher coverage and more equitable spatial distribution is conducive to urban heat mitigation. Increasing GS coverage was found to lower the city's average LST by up to 4.73 °C, while optimizing GS spatial distribution led to a decrease of 1.06 °C. Meanwhile, a synergistic cooling effect was observed when combining both measures, resulting in additional cooling benefits (0.034-0.341 °C). These findings provide valuable insights into the cooling potential of GS and crucial guidance for urban green planning aimed at heat mitigation in cities.

Heterogeneous effects of the availability and spatial configuration of urban green spaces on their cooling effects in China.

The impacts of the availability and spatial configuration of urban green spaces (UGS) on their cooling effects can vary with background climate conditions. However, large-scale studies that assess the potential heterogeneous relationships of UGS availability and spatial configuration with urban thermal environment are still lacking. In this study, we investigated the impacts of UGS availability and spatial configuration on urban land surface temperature (LST) taking 306 cities in China as a case study covering a multi-biome-scale. We first calculated the availability of surrounding UGS for urban built-up pixels in each city using a distance-weighted approach, and its spatial configuration was quantified through the Gini coefficient. Then, we employed various regression models to explore how the impacts of UGS availability and the Gini coefficient on LST varies across different LST quantiles and between day- and nighttime. The results revealed that UGS availability was negatively associated with both daytime and nighttime LST, while the Gini coefficient showed a positive impact solely on daytime LST, indicating that an adequate and equally distributed UGS contributes to lower environmental temperatures during the daytime. Furthermore, the impact of UGS availability on LST decreased during both day- and nighttime with increased background LST quantiles. Whereas the impact of the Gini coefficient increased only with daytime LST quantile levels, with its effect remaining almost insignificant during the night. Our findings provide new insights into the impacts of UGS on urban thermal environment, offering significant implications for urban green infrastructure planning aiming at lowering the urban heat island.

Ecological monitoring of urban thermal field variance index and determining the surface urban heat island effects in Lahore, Pakistan.

Lahore is the second major metropolitan city in Pakistan in terms of urban population and built-up area, making the city a more ideal place to form the surface urban heat island (SUHI) effects. In the last two decades, the considerable land-use conversion from a natural surface (vegetation) and permeable (waterbody) surface into an impervious (built-up area) surface has lead to an increase in land surface temperature (LST) in Lahore. The human thermal comfort (HTC) of the residents is also impacted by the higher LST. The present study uses multi-temporal Landsat (5&8) satellite imageries to examine the ecological and thermal conditions of Lahore between 2000 and 2020. The ecological and thermal conditions of Lahore are assessed by calculating the urban heat islands and UTFVI (urban thermal field variance index), based on LST data which quantitatively assessed the UHI effect and the quality of human life. The outcomes establish that the urban built-up area has increased by 18%, while urban vegetation, vacant land, and waterbody decreased by 13%, 4%, and 0.04%, respectively. In the last 20 years, the mean LST of the study region has risen by about 3.67 °C. The UHI intensity map shows intensification and a rise in surface temperature variation from 4.5 °C (2000) to 5.9 °C (2020). Furthermore, the finding shows that the ecological and thermal conditions are worse in construction sites, transition zones, and urban areas in comparison to nearby rural areas. The lower UTFVI was observed in dense vegetation cover areas while a hot spot of higher UTFVI was predominantly observed in the areas of transition zones and built-up area expansion. Those areas with higher hot spots are more vulnerable to the urban heat island effect. The main conclusions of this study are essential for educating city officials and urban planners in developing a sustainable urban land development plan to reduce urban heat island effects by investing in open green spaces for urban areas of cities.

Reinforcing nature-based solutions through tools providing social-ecological-technological integration.

While held to be a means for climate change adaptation and mitigation, nature-based solutions (NbS) themselves are vulnerable to climate change. To find ways of compensating for this vulnerability we combine a focused literature review on how information technology has been used to strengthen positive social-ecological-technological feedback, with the development of a prototype decision-support tool. Guided by the literature review, the tool integrates recent advances in using globally available remote sensing data to elicit information on functional diversity and ecosystem service provisioning with information on human service demand and population vulnerability. When combined, these variables can inform climate change adaptation strategies grounded in local social-ecological realities. This type of integrated monitoring and packaging information to be actionable have potential to support NbS management and local knowledge building for context-tailored solutions to societal challenges in urban environments.

Measuring spatio-temporal heterogeneity and interior characteristics of green spaces in urban neighborhoods: A new approach using gray level co-occurrence matrix.

Urban green space (UGS) is a complex and highly dynamic interface between people and nature. The existing methods of quantifying and evaluating UGS are mainly implemented on the surface features at a landscape scale, and most of them are insufficient to thoroughly reflect the spatial-temporal relationships, especially the internal characteristics changes at a small scale and the neighborhood spatial relationship of UGS. This paper thus proposes a method to evaluate the internal dynamics and neighborhood heterogeneity of different types of UGS in Leipzig using the gray level co-occurrence matrix (GLCM) index. We choose GLCM variance, contrast, and entropy to analyze five main types of UGS through a holistic description of their vegetation growth, spatial heterogeneity, and internal orderliness. The results show that different types of UGS have distinct characteristics due to the changes of surrounding buildings and the distance to the built-up area. Within a one-year period, seasonal changes in UGS far away from built-up areas are more obvious. As for the larger and dense urban forests, they have the lowest spatial heterogeneity and internal order. On the contrary, the garden areas present the highest heterogeneity. In this study, the GLCM index depicts the seasonal alternation of UGS on the temporal scale and shows the spatial form of each UGS, being in line with local urban planning contexts. The correlation analysis of indices also proves that each type of UGS has its distinct temporal and spatial characteristics. The GLCM is valid in assessing the internal characteristics and relationships of various UGS at the neighborhood scales, and using the methodology developed in our study, more studies and field experiments could be fulfilled to investigate the assessment accuracy of our GLCM index approach and to further enhance the scientific understanding on the internal features and ecological functions of UGS.

A trait-based typification of urban forests as nature-based solutions.

Urban forests as nature-based solutions (UF-NBS) are important tools for climate change adaptation and sustainable development. However, achieving both effective and sustainable UF-NBS solutions requires diverse knowledge. This includes knowledge on UF-NBS implementation, on the assessment of their environmental impacts in diverse spatial contexts, and on their management for the long-term safeguarding of delivered benefits. A successful integration of such bodies of knowledge demands a systematic understanding of UF-NBS. To achieve such an understanding, this paper presents a conceptual UF-NBS model obtained through a semantic, trait-based modelling approach. This conceptual model is subsequently implemented as an extendible, re-usable and interoperable ontology. In so doing, a formal, trait-based vocabulary on UF-NBS is created, that allows expressing spatial, morphological, physical, functional, and institutional UF-NBS properties for their typification and a subsequent integration of further knowledge and data. Thereby, ways forward are opened for a more systematic UF-NBS impact assessment, management, and decision-making.

Analysis of differences and commonalities in wildlife hunting across the Africa-Europe South-North gradient.

Hunting and its impacts on wildlife are typically studied regionally, with a particular focus on the Global South. Hunting can, however, also undermine rewilding efforts or threaten wildlife in the Global North. Little is known about how hunting manifests under varying socioeconomic and ecological contexts across the Global South and North. Herein, we examined differences and commonalities in hunting characteristics across an exemplary Global South-North gradient approximated by the Human Development Index (HDI) using face-to-face interviews with 114 protected area (PA) managers in 25 African and European countries. Generally, we observed that hunting ranges from the illegal, economically motivated, and unsustainable hunting of herbivores in the South to the legal, socially and ecologically motivated hunting of ungulates within parks and the illegal hunting of mainly predators outside parks in the North. Commonalities across this Africa-Europe South-North gradient included increased conflict-related killings in human-dominated landscapes and decreased illegal hunting with beneficial community conditions, such as mutual trust resulting from community involvement in PA management. Nevertheless, local conditions cannot outweigh the strong effect of the HDI on unsustainable hunting. Our findings highlight regional challenges that require collaborative, integrative efforts in wildlife conservation across actors, while identified commonalities may outline universal mechanisms for achieving this goal.

Can improving the spatial equity of urban green space mitigate the effect of urban heat islands? An empirical study.

The role of urban green space (UGS) in mitigating the urban heat island (UHI) effect has been demonstrated in a growing body of literature. However, the potential influence of the spatial equity of UGS distribution on the UHI effect has largely been overlooked. The present study aims to identify this potential influence using the spatial equity of UGS and the land surface temperature (LST) as measures of UGS spatial distribution and UHIs, respectively. A comprehensive spatial distribution map of UGS was generated by combining the UGS coverage fraction data within urban impervious pixels and the green cover data outside urban impervious pixels. Then, the spatial equity of UGS distribution across all urban impervious pixels was determined using the Gini coefficient. In addition, an LST map was derived using the thermal infrared spectral bands of Landsat 8 OLI/TIRS products. A case study of Dongguan, a highly urbanized city in China, showed that (1) the distribution of both UGS and LSTs were spatially aggregated in all the towns of the city, (2) the LST of urban impervious pixels was negatively correlated with the area of surrounding UGS, and (3) the Gini coefficient of UGS was positively correlated with the proportion of hot and cool areas, but negatively correlated with the proportion of medium-hot and medium-cool areas. These findings indicate that increasing the amount of UGS is beneficial to the reduction of urban average LSTs, while promoting the spatial equity of UGS distribution is conducive to reducing the spatial aggregation of LSTs within urban areas, thereby improving the overall urban thermal environment. Therefore, as a nature-based solution, promoting the spatial equity of UGS distribution could enhance the overall cooling effect of UGS more effectively at the city scale, and thus further underpin the sustainable development of the urban environment.

Identifying Spatial Patterns and Ecosystem Service Delivery of Nature-Based Solutions.

Compared to technical infrastructure, nature-based solutions, NBS, strive to work with nature and to move beyond business-as-usual practices in order to address societal challenges such as flood risks. This research aims to spatially identify possible NBS areas and evaluate the areas capacity to provide selected ecosystem services, ES, for the Lahn river landscape in Germany. The research follows the functional landscape approach using hydromorphological landscape units, HLU, based on specific biophysical spatial criteria, such as slope, to then identify locations which may be considered suitable for NBS. The current ES delivery of these possible NBS areas is then evaluated. The three ES assessed are carbon storage, nutrient retention and recreation. We then undertake a geospatial comparison analysis to show the spatial relationships and patterns that emerge in regards to the ES configuration of the distinct NBS apt areas. Results show the HLU method serves to delineate and identify areas where NBS may exist or be implemented. The data depicts a distinct spatial pattern for each possible NBS space and complementary ES delivery. This explorative method is a useful spatial approach that can support NBS implementation and serve to investigate the multiple benefits NBS provide. The use of ecosystem services to compare and understand NBS is a viable prospect that must, however, be cautiously, locally and scientifically approached. Noticeable limitations regarding ES assessment remain, as available methods are often insufficiently inclusive of natural ecosystem processes and functions. Further research should assess a broader spectrum of NBS and their delivery of ES.

Urban green space interaction and wellbeing - investigating the experience of international students in Berlin during the first COVID-19 lockdown.

This qualitative study explores the topic of mental health/wellbeing with reference to exposure to urban green space (UGS). It builds on previous research, which has highlighted the potential for green space interaction for supporting positive emotional and mental wellbeing, particularly in times of stress and uncertainty. Using this basis, the paper explores whether UGS interaction also helped to mitigate the negative mental health impacts brought about by the first COVID-19 lockdown. The specific focus is on students and expatriates living in Berlin, Germany as this population groupbecame increasingly vulnerable during this time as a result of uncertainty and restrictions in their daily lives brought about the enforced lockdown measures. More specifically, this paper investigates how a change in their daily routines created opportunities to interact with and experience UGS differently and how their emotional response and perception towards these spaces changed. Semi-structured interviews allowed for stories, experiences and emotions to unfold, which revealed that the participants' gained an appreciation for the potential of UGS to support their wellbeing during a stressful and isolating time. UGS interaction also allowed them to form tangible memories of summer 2020 as it provided a safe arena for them to maintain social contact with friends outdoors, or to escape their home environment and experience respite and relaxation in a natural setting. The findings demonstrate that for this sub-group of the population UGS became a reliable constant and a valuable public health resource, which may also help to mitigate the long-term adverse mental health impacts of the pandemic.

Creating accessible evidence bases: Opportunities through the integration of interactive tools into literature review synthesis.

The COVID-19 pandemic has shown that an immediate access to relevant information is key for timely interventions and forming of public opinion and discourse. In this regard, dashboards present themselves as invaluable tools for the democratization of data and for the creation of accessible evidence bases. Building on this momentum, it is proposed to integrate interactive means such as dashboards into academic literature review synthesis, in order to support the summarization, narration, and dissemination of findings, and furthermore, to increase transparency and support the transferability and comparability of findings. Exemplified for a systematic literature review on urban forests as nature-based solutions,•Key functionalities, requirements and design considerations for the development of dashboards for use in academic literature reviews synthesis are identified.•An application architecture that embeds dashboard development into an R workflow is presented, with emphasis on the steps needed to transform the data collected during the review process into a structured form.•Technical and methodological means for the actual dashboard implementation are highlighted, considering the identified key functionalities and requirements.

Integrating solutions to adapt cities for climate change.

Record climate extremes are reducing urban liveability, compounding inequality, and threatening infrastructure. Adaptation measures that integrate technological, nature-based, and social solutions can provide multiple co-benefits to address complex socioecological issues in cities while increasing resilience to potential impacts. However, there remain many challenges to developing and implementing integrated solutions. In this Viewpoint, we consider the value of integrating across the three solution sets, the challenges and potential enablers for integrating solution sets, and present examples of challenges and adopted solutions in three cities with different urban contexts and climates (Freiburg, Germany; Durban, South Africa; and Singapore). We conclude with a discussion of research directions and provide a road map to identify the actions that enable successful implementation of integrated climate solutions. We highlight the need for more systematic research that targets enabling environments for integration; achieving integrated solutions in different contexts to avoid maladaptation; simultaneously improving liveability, sustainability, and equality; and replicating via transfer and scale-up of local solutions. Cities in systematically disadvantaged countries (sometimes referred to as the Global South) are central to future urban development and must be prioritised. Helping decision makers and communities understand the potential opportunities associated with integrated solutions for climate change will encourage urgent and deliberate strides towards adapting cities to the dynamic climate reality.

Continuous integration in urban social-ecological systems science needs to allow for spacing co-existence : This article belongs to Ambio's 50th Anniversary Collection. Theme: Urbanization.

Urbanization brings benefits and burdens to both humans and nature. Cities are key systems for integrated social-ecological research and the interdisciplinary journal of Ambio has published ground-breaking contributions in this field. This reflection piece identifies and discusses integration of the human and natural spheres in urban social-ecological research using the following foundational papers as important milestones: Folke et al. (1997), Ernstson et al. (2010) and Andersson et al. (2014). These papers each take unique approaches that aim to uncover core properties-processes, structures, and actors-of urban systems and set them into mutual relationship. This piece will end with a forward-looking vision for the coming 50 years of urban sustainability and resilience study in Ambio.

COVID-19 pandemic observations as a trigger to reflect on urban forestry in European cities under climate change: Introducing nature-society-based solutions.

COVID-19 pandemic observations triggered a reflection by the author on urban forests in European cities under climate change as nature-society-based solutions. This commentary introduces a complementary triad of approaches that are all known but might lead to a novel view of urban nature, including forests, regarding changes in pandemic diseases and/or related to urbanization and climate change: Hybridity, succession, and flexibility: First, allowing for green spaces used by humans and nature but also those that are exclusively for ecosystems to provide space for undisturbed development and thus better control pests and diseases. Second, allow for succession at urban open spaces to let nature experiment on solutions for a drier and hotter climate that urban society can implement in urban forestry. And third, allow planning to set targets in efficiency assessment and monitoring that are matching time periods which natural ecosystems need to adapt to climate change acknowledging nature as a real 'partner' in nature-society-based solutions in one-health cities.

The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the use of and attitudes towards urban forests and green spaces: Exploring the instigators of change in Belgium.

The COVID-19 pandemic has strongly impacted our society, producing drastic changes in people's routines and daily mobility, and putting public spaces under a new light. This paper starts with the premise that the use of urban forests and green spaces - where and for who they were available and accessible - increased, when social restrictions were most stringent. It takes an explorative approach to examine changes in attitude towards urban forests and urban green spaces in terms of attraction (i.e., as the actual use behaviour), intended use (i.e., intention of going to green spaces), and civic engagement in relation to green spaces. In particular, it analyses the responses to a survey of 1987 respondents in Belgium and statistically examines the relationship between sociodemographic characteristics, urbanisation characteristics, actual and intended green space use, and changes in attitudes towards green spaces and civic engagement. The findings show that highly educated citizens experienced an increase in actual and intended use of green spaces during the pandemic, but that this increase differs among sociodemographic profiles such as impact of age or access to private green, and depends on their local built environment characteristics. In addition, the COVID-19 pandemic has strongly impacted citizens' attitudes, as well as (intended) behaviour and civil engagement with respect to the green spaces in their area.

Prediction of soil organic carbon and the C:N ratio on a national scale using machine learning and satellite data: A comparison between Sentinel-2, Sentinel-3 and Landsat-8 images.

Soil organic carbon (SOC) and soil carbon-to-nitrogen ratio (C:N) are the main indicators of soil quality and health and play an important role in maintaining soil quality. Together with Landsat, the improved spatial and temporal resolution Sentinel sensors provide the potential to investigate soil information on various scales. We analyzed and compared the potential of satellite sensors (Landsat-8, Sentinel-2 and Sentinel-3) with various spatial and temporal resolutions to predict SOC content and C:N ratio in Switzerland. Modeling was carried out at four spatial resolutions (800 m, 400 m, 100 m and 20 m) using three machine learning techniques: support vector machine (SVM), boosted regression tree (BRT) and random forest (RF). Soil prediction models were generated in these three machine learners in which 150 soil samples and different combinations of environmental data (topography, climate and satellite imagery) were used as inputs. The prediction results were evaluated by cross-validation. Our results revealed that the model type, modeling resolution and sensor selection greatly influenced outputs. By comparing satellite-based SOC models, the models built by Landsat-8 and Sentinel-2 performed the best and the worst, respectively. C:N ratio prediction models based on Landsat-8 and Sentinel-2 showed better results than Sentinel-3. However, the prediction models built by Sentinel-3 had competitive or better accuracy at coarse resolutions. The BRT models constructed by all available predictors at a resolution of 100 m obtained the best prediction accuracy of SOC content and C:N ratio; their relative improvements (in terms of R2) compared to models without remote sensing data input were 29.1% and 58.4%, respectively. The results of variable importance revealed that remote sensing variables were the best predictors for our soil prediction models. The predicted maps indicated that the higher SOC content was mainly distributed in the Alps, while the C:N ratio shared a similar distribution pattern with land use and had higher values in forest areas. This study provides useful indicators for a more effective modeling of soil properties on various scales based on satellite imagery.

A conceptual model of the social-ecological system of nature-based solutions in urban environments.

This article provides a perspective on nature-based solutions. First, the argument is developed that nature-based solutions integrate social and ecological systems. Then, theoretical considerations relating to relational values, multifunctionality, transdisciplinarity, and polycentric governance are briefly outlined. Finally, a conceptual model of the social-ecological system of nature-based solutions is synthesised and presented. This conceptual model comprehensively defines the social and ecological external and internal systems that make up nature-based solutions, and identifies theoretical considerations that need to be addressed at different stages of their planning and implementation The model bridges the normative gaps of existing nature-based solution frameworks and could be used for consistent, comprehensive, and transferable comparisons internationally. The theoretical considerations addressed in this article inform practitioners, policymakers, and researchers about the essential components of nature-based solutions. The conceptual model can facilitate the identification of social and ecological interconnections within nature-based solutions and the range of stakeholders and disciplines involved.