[Neuro-Behçet in a Sub-Saharan Africa Country: a Series of Sixteen Patients in Fann Teaching Hospital, Dakar, Senegal]. / Neuro-Behçet dans un pays d'Afrique subsaharienne : une série de 16 patients au centre hospitalier national universitaire de Fann de Dakar, Sénégal.

Neuro-Behçet (NB) African studies are mainly North African, but Sub-Saharan Africa is not to be outdone. Our aim was to describe diagnostic and therapeutic features of NB in a Senegalese series collected in Dakar. This was a descriptive and retrospective study conducted at the Neurology department of Fann Teaching Hospital in Dakar, Senegal. All patients who met the NB's diagnostic criteria were included. Sixteen patients were collected, 14 males and 2 females with an average age of 40 years [18-71]. The main neurological signs were motor deficit (13 cases), headache (10 cases), and language disorders (4 cases). Extra-neurological signs were dermatological (14 cases), ocular (2 cases), and articular (2 cases) with aseptic unilateral gonarthritis. Fever was present in 9 patients. Neurological involvement was mostly isolated parenchymal (8 cases) or mixed (6 cases). The main clinical forms of NB were rhombencephalitis (8 cases) and retrobulbar optic neuritis (4 cases). Seven patients had a cerebral angio-Behçet with cerebral venous thrombosis (3 cases), ischemic stroke (2 cases), and intracerebral hematoma (2 cases). Under prednisone (16 cases) and azathioprine (3 cases), the short-term clinical outcome was mostly favorable (14 cases) with a modified Rankin scale at 2. NB is an under-diagnosed adult male disease in Sub-Saharan Africa and further studies are needed.

Les études africaines sur le neuro-Behçet (NB) sont majoritairement maghrébines, mais l'Afrique noire n'est pas en reste. L'objectif de l'étude était de décrire les particularités diagnostiques et thérapeutiques du NB dans une série sénégalaise colligée à Dakar. Il s'agit d'une étude rétrospective à visée descriptive menée à la clinique de neurologie du centre hospitalier universitaire de Fann de Dakar, au Sénégal. Tous les patients répondant aux critères diagnostiques de NB ont été inclus. Seize patients ont été colligés, 14 hommes et deux femmes avec un âge moyen de 40 ans [18­71]. Les principaux signes neurologiques étaient un déficit moteur (13 cas), des céphalées (10 cas) et un trouble du langage (4 cas). Les signes extraneurologiques étaient dermatologiques (14 cas), oculaires (2 cas) et articulaires (2 cas) à type de gonarthrite unilatérale aseptique. Une fièvre était présente chez neuf patients. L'atteinte neurologique était majoritairement parenchymateuse isolée (8 cas) ou mixte (6 cas). Les principales formes cliniques de NB étaient la rhombencéphalite (8 cas) et la névrite optique rétrobulbaire (4 cas). Sept patients avaient un angio-Behçet cérébral à type de thromboses veineuses cérébrales (3 cas), d'infarctus cérébraux (2 cas) et d'hématomes intracérébraux (2 cas). Sous prednisone (16 cas) et azathioprine (3 cas), l'évolution clinique à court terme était majoritairement favorable (14 cas) avec un score de Rankin modifié de 2 au moment de l'exeat. Le NB est une maladie de l'homme adulte sous-diagnostiquée en Afrique noire. Des études ultérieures multicentriques nationales et sous-régionales sont souhaitables.

Assessment of Tocilizumab (Anti-Interleukin-6 Receptor Monoclonal) as a Potential Treatment for Chronic Antibody-Mediated Rejection and Transplant Glomerulopathy in HLA-Sensitized Renal Allograft Recipients.

Extending the functional integrity of renal allografts is the primary goal of transplant medicine. The development of donor-specific antibodies (DSAs) posttransplantation leads to chronic active antibody-mediated rejection (cAMR) and transplant glomerulopathy (TG), resulting in the majority of graft losses that occur in the United States. This reduces the quality and length of life for patients and increases cost. There are no approved treatments for cAMR. Evidence suggests the proinflammatory cytokine interleukin 6 (IL-6) may play an important role in DSA generation and cAMR. We identified 36 renal transplant patients with cAMR plus DSAs and TG who failed standard of care treatment with IVIg plus rituximab with or without plasma exchange. Patients were offered rescue therapy with the anti-IL-6 receptor monoclonal tocilizumab with monthly infusions and monitored for DSAs and long-term outcomes. Tocilizumab-treated patients demonstrated graft survival and patient survival rates of 80% and 91% at 6 years, respectively. Significant reductions in DSAs and stabilization of renal function were seen at 2 years. No significant adverse events or severe adverse events were seen. Tocilizumab provides good long-term outcomes for patients with cAMR and TG, especially compared with historical published treatments. Inhibition of the IL-6-IL-6 receptor pathway may represent a novel approach to stabilize allograft function and extend patient lives.

Progress in Desensitization of the Highly HLA Sensitized Patient.

The presence of HLA antibodies remains a significant and often impenetrable barrier to kidney transplantation, leading to increased morbidity and mortality for patients remaining on long-term dialysis. In recent years, a number of new approaches have been developed to overcome these barriers. Intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) remains the lynchpin of HLA desensitization therapy and has been shown in a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled trial to improve transplantation rates. In addition, IVIG used in low doses with plasma exchange is a reliable protocol for desensitization. Another significant advancement was the addition of rituximab (anti-B-cell therapy) to IVIG and plasma exchange-based desensitization. This approach has significantly improved rates of transplantation and outcomes. There is limited experience with bortezomib (anti-plasma cell therapy) and eculizumab (complement inhibition) for desensitization. However, recent data from a completed trial of eculizumab failed to show a significant benefit for prevention of antibody-mediated rejection compared with standard therapy plus placebo, and bortezomib produced inconsistent results. There is a growing interest in developing new therapeutic agents for desensitization. Newer approaches that address antibody reduction with B-cell depletion are discussed.

Complement Inhibition for Prevention and Treatment of Antibody-Mediated Rejection in Renal Allograft Recipients.

Therapeutic interventions aimed at the human complement system are recognized as potentially important strategies for the treatment of inflammatory and autoimmune diseases because there is often evidence of complement-mediated injury according to pathologic assessments. In addition, there are a large number of potential targets, both soluble and cell bound, that might offer potential for new drug development, but progress in this area has met with significant challenges. Currently, 2 drugs are approved aimed at inhibition of complement activation. The first option is eculizumab (anti-C5), which is approved for the treatment of paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria and atypical hemolytic uremic syndrome. Eculizumab has also been studied in human transplantation for the treatment and prevention of antibody-mediated rejection (ABMR). Initial data from uncontrolled studies suggested a significant benefit of eculizumab for the prevention of ABMR in highly HLA-sensitized patients, but a subsequent randomized, placebo-controlled trial failed to meet its primary endpoint. Anecdotal data, primarily from case studies, showed benefits in treating complement-mediated ABMR. A second approved complement-inhibiting therapy is C1 esterase inhibitor (C1-INH), which is approved for use in patients with hereditary angioedema, a condition caused by mutations in the gene that codes for C1-INH. A recent placebo-controlled trial of C1-INH for prevention of ABMR in HLA-sensitized patients found that the drug was safe, with evidence for inhibition of systemic complement activation and complement-activating donor-specific antibodies. Other drugs are now under development.

JC polyomavirus viremia and progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in human leukocyte antigen-sensitized kidney transplant recipients desensitized with intravenous immunoglobulin and rituximab.

BACKGROUND: Desensitization (DES) with intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) + rituximab is effective, safe, and increases the transplantation rate in human leukocyte antigen-sensitized patients. However, reports of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) caused by JC polyomavirus (JCPyV) in autoimmune patients treated with rituximab is concerning. Here, we report on the JCPyV viremia and PML status in kidney transplant patients with/without DES (non-DES). METHODS: In total 1195 and 699 DNA samples from plasma in 117 DES (78% lymphocyte-depleting [LyD] induction) and 100 non-DES patients (45% LyD), respectively, were submitted for JCPyV-polymerase chain reaction. Results were compared in both groups. RESULTS: No patients in either DES or non-DES developed PML or presented with any neurological symptoms. The JCPyV viremia rate was similar in DES and non-DES patients (3/117 vs. 9/100, P = 0.07). The JCPyV levels were low (median peak levels, 1025 copies/mL) and JCPyV viremia was observed only once during the study period in most patients. All 3 DES patients with JCPyV(+) received 1 dose rituximab and no DES patients with >1 dose rituximab showed JCPyV(+). All 3 JCPyV(+) DES patients received LyD induction, while only 2 of 9 JCPyV(+) non-DES patients did so, and the remaining 7 received non-LyD or no induction. JCPyV in leukocyte was mostly negative in DES and non-DES patients. Immunosuppression in patients with or without JCPyV(+) was similar. BK polyomavirus viremia was observed more commonly in patients with JCPyV(+) than in those without (P < 0.02). CONCLUSIONS: Patients with IVIG + rituximab DES followed by transplantation with LyD induction and additional rituximab rarely show JCPyV viremia and appear at low risk for PML.

Desensitizing the broadly human leukocyte antigen-sensitized patient awaiting deceased donor kidney transplantation.

For broadly human leukocyte antigen-sensitized patients (HS; calculated panel-reactive antibody >80%), options for deceased donor (DD) transplantation are extremely limited. Data from United Network for Organ Sharing (2000-2009) indicate that <10% of HS patients are transplanted each year. Immune modulation of HS patients using intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) and rituximab has shown promise in reducing donor-specific antibody (DSA) titers and improving the chances for successful transplantation for patients awaiting DD transplants. Critical to the success of desensitization with IVIG + rituximab is a coherent antibody-testing strategy aimed at detection of DSA reductions and identification of crossmatch parameters that are associated with a low likelihood of antibody-mediated rejection posttransplant. Here, we discuss data that examine the efficacy of IVIG + rituximab in reducing DSA levels and improving chances for a successful DD transplantation. Patient and graft survival data are also presented as is an analysis of the safety of IVIG + rituximab in sensitized patients.

Clinical aspects of intravenous immunoglobulin use in solid organ transplant recipients.

Intravenous immunoglobulin products (IVIG) are derived from pooled human plasma from thousands of donors and have been used for the treatment of primary immunodeficiency disorders for nearly 30 years. IVIG products are also effective in the treatment of autoimmune and inflammatory disorders, however the precise mechanism(s) of immune modulation are unknown. Recent data suggests that IVIG has a much broader ability to regulate cellular immunity, including innate and adaptive components. IVIG is also a recently recognized modifier of complement activation and injury. These attributes suggests IVIG would have clinical applications in solid organ transplantation. Analysis of clinical studies examining the use of IVIG in desensitization protocols and for treatment of antibody-mediated rejection (AMR) are supportive for kidney transplant recipients, although no clinical trials using IVIG in sensitized patients were performed seeking an Federal Drug Administration indication. Data regarding the use of IVIG for desensitization and treatment of AMR in cardiac and lung allograft recipients is not conclusive. IVIG is useful in the treatment and prevention of posttransplant infectious complications including cytomegalovirus, parvovirus B19 and polyoma BK virus. In addition, we address the risk of adverse events associated with IVIG use in sensitized end-stage renal disease and transplant patients.

Overview of renal transplantation.

Kidney transplantation is the treatment of choice for end stage renal disease patients. Recent advances, including newer immunosuppressants, revision of organ allocation policies, and better medical care of renal transplant recipients, have resulted in an increase number of transplants with improved outcomes. The major obstacles include the lack of improvement in long term outcomes, shortage of organs and long-term morbidity of candidates with chronic kidney disease. This review highlights transplant immunology, organ allocation, immunosuppressive medications, and complications of transplantation involving post transplantation infections, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease.

Steatohepatitis-inducing drugs cause mitochondrial dysfunction and lipid peroxidation in rat hepatocytes.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: 4,4'-Diethylaminoethoxyhexestrol (DEAEH), amiodarone, and perhexiline cause steatohepatitis in humans. The mechanisms of these effects are unknown for DEAEH and have not been completely elucidated for amiodarone and perhexiline. The aim of this study was to determine these mechanisms. METHODS: Rat liver mitochondria, cultured rat hepatocytes, or rats were treated with these drugs, and the effects on mitochondrial respiration, beta-oxidation, reactive oxygen species formation, and lipid peroxidation were determined. RESULTS: DEAEH accumulated in mitochondria and inhibited carnitine palmitoyl transferase I and acyl-coenzyme A dehydrogenases; it decreased beta-oxidation and caused lipid deposits in hepatocytes. DEAEH also inhibited mitochondrial respiration and decreased adenosine triphosphate (ATP) levels in hepatocytes. DEAEH, amiodarone, and perhexiline augmented the mitochondrial formation of reactive oxygen species and caused lipid peroxidation in rats. CONCLUSIONS: Like amiodarone and perhexiline, DEAEH accumulates in mitochondria, where it inhibits both beta-oxidation (causing steatosis) and respiration. Inhibition of respiration decreases ATP and also increases the mitochondrial formation of reactive oxygen species. The latter oxidize fat deposits, causing lipid peroxidation. We suggest that ATP depletion and lipid peroxidation may cause cell death and that lipid peroxidation products may account, in part, for other steatohepatitis lesions.

The interleukin-2 receptor down-regulates the expression of cytochrome P450 in cultured rat hepatocytes.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Interleukin (IL) 2 is used in advanced cancers, but its effects on cytochrome P450 remain unknown. Other cytokines down-regulate hepatic cytochrome P450, but it is not known whether this involves cytokine receptors. The aim of this study was to determine whether the IL-2 receptor is expressed on hepatocytes and whether its activation by IL-2 depresses cytochrome P450 in cultured rat hepatocytes. METHODS: A monoclonal antibody specific for the rat IL-2 receptor alpha chain was used to label the receptor, whereas effects on cytochrome P450 were determined after 24 hours of culture with human recombinant IL-2 (5000 U/mL). RESULTS: The presence of the IL-2 receptor in hepatocytes was shown by immunoblots, flow cytometry, and scanning confocal microscopy. IL-2 caused a 46% decrease in total cytochrome P450; a 35%, 35%, 36%, 26%, and 56% decrease in immunoreactive cytochrome P4501A1, 2B, 2C11, 2D1, and 3A, respectively; and a marked decrease in cytochrome P4503A2 and 2C11 messenger RNAs. Addition to the culture medium of the anti-receptor antibody or the tyrosine kinase inhibitor genistein prevented the IL-2-mediated decrease in cytochrome P450. CONCLUSIONS: IL-2 down-regulates the expression of cytochrome P450 genes in cultured rat hepatocytes by interacting with its receptor expressed on hepatocytes.

Administration of high doses of human recombinant interleukin-2 decreases the expression of several cytochromes P-450 in the rat.

Human recombinant interleukin-2 (IL-2) administration is being tested in patients with advanced cancer. Its effects on the expression of cytochromes P-450 were determined in rats. IL-2 administration (1-25 x 10(6) U/kg i.v. twice daily for 1 to 4 days) resulted in a time- and dose-dependent decrease in cytochrome P-450 measured by the absorbance of its Fe(++)-CO complex. After 25 x 10(6) U/kg twice daily for 4 days, cytochrome P-450 decreased 44%; immunoreactive cytochrome P-450 1A1 decreased nonsignificantly (22%); but cytochrome P-450 1A2 decreased 68%; 2B1/2, 50%; 2C11, 75%; 2D1, 36%; and 3A, 70%. Aminopyrine N-demethylase activity decreased 53%, ethoxycoumarin O-deethylase 64%, benzo(a)pyrene hydroxylase 71%, ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase 42%, pentoxyresorufin O-dealkylase 81% and erythromycin N-demethylase 56%. In rats treated with 3-methylcholanthrene for 4 days, IL-2 coadministration (25 x 10(6) U/kg i.v. twice daily for 4 days) did not decrease significantly immunoreactive cytochrome P-450 1A1 and 1A2, whereas cytochromes P-450 2B1/2, 2C11 and 3A decreased 39, 54 and 67%, respectively. In rats treated with phenobarbital for 4 days, IL-2 coadministration decreased immunoreactive cytochromes P-450 2B1/2 29%, whereas cytochromes P-450 1A2, 2C11 and 3A decreased 38, 63 and 67%, respectively. We conclude that administration of high doses of IL-2 decreases the expression of several cytochromes P-450 in rats. Microsomal enzyme inducers appear to limit the effects of IL-2 on the induced forms of cytochromes P-450. Because much lower doses are used in humans, their potential effects on drug metabolism cannot be assessed from present results.