Positive Effects of Aerobic-Resistance Exercise and an Ad Libitum High-Protein, Low-Glycemic Index Diet on Irisin, Omentin, and Dyslipidemia in Men with Abdominal Obesity: A Randomized Controlled Trial.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this research was to evaluate changes in body composition, adipokine levels, and dyslipidemia parameters in males with abdominal obesity following two distinct interventions: exercise alone and exercise combined with an ad libitum diet. METHODS: This study included 44 males with abdominal obesity (mean age 34.7 ± 5.5 years, waist circumference [WC] 110.3 ± 8.5, BMI 32.0 ± 3.9), who were randomly assigned to three groups: an experimental group engaging in aerobic-resistance exercise (II, n = 16), an experimental group engaging in aerobic-resistance exercise combined with an ad libitum high-protein, low-glycemic index carbohydrate diet (III, n = 16), both interventions lasting 6 weeks, and a control group without interventions (I, n = 12). Body composition metrics (body mass index [BMI], waist circumference [WC], body fat [BF], abdominal fat [ABD]) and fat-free mass [FFM], along with biochemical blood analyses (irisin [IR], omentin [OMEN], glucose [GLU], insulin [INS], LDL- and HDL-cholesterol), were measured at baseline and after the 6-week intervention. The effects of the interventions on the analyzed variables across groups were assessed using mixed ANOVA tests with post-hoc comparisons. Effect size (ES) was also calculated using partial eta squared (ηp2). RESULTS: The intervention in group III resulted in a significant decrease in IR (p < 0.01, ηp2 = 0.03) by 41% and LDL-C (p < 0.01, ηp2 = 0.02) by 14%. These effects were associated with a reduction in BF (p < 0.01, ηp2 = 0.02) by 14%, ABD (p < 0.01, ηp2 = 0.03) by 31%, and WC (p < 0.01, ηp2 = 0.01) by 3%. In group II, decreases after 6 weeks of intervention were noted only in WC (p = 0.02, ηp2 = 0.01) by 1% and in INS (p < 0.01, ηp2 = 0.04) by 47%. No differences were found between groups. The use of low-glycemic index carbohydrates (p < 0.01, ηp2 = 0.06) and increased protein intake (p < 0.01, ηp2 = 0.30) led to changes in the fiber-to-energy value of the diet ratio (p < 0.01, ηp2 = 0.18) and a reduction in dietary energy value (p < 0.01, ηp2 = 0.13) by 23%, resulting in a greater energy deficit than in the II group. CONCLUSIONS: These findings highlight the effect of combining dietary and exercise interventions to achieve significant changes in body composition and metabolic parameters, even over a short period of intervention.

Tracking anthropometric dimensions and grip strength among children, adolescents and adults in an indigenous community of southern Mexico: 1968-1978-2000.

PURPOSE: To track body size and proportions, arm dimensions and grip strength in children, adolescents, and adults resident in an indigenous community in Oaxaca who were measured on two or three occasions across surveys in 1968, 1978, and 2000. METHODS: The three cross-sectional surveys included measures of height, weight, sitting height, arm circumference, triceps skinfold, and grip strength in surveys of schoolchildren in 1968 and of schoolchildren, adolescents and adults in 1978 and 2000. Cross-checks of surnames, forenames and ages/dates of birth of participants in the three surveys identified three samples of individuals measured on two occasions (1968-1978, two age groups in 1978-2000) and a subsample of individuals measured in the three surveys. Partial correlations controlling for age at each observation were calculated for each variable in the three sex-specific samples measured on two occasions, and for the subsamples of males and females measured on three occasions. RESULTS: Allowing for variation in age among subsamples, inter-age correlations were moderate to high for stature, moderate for sitting height and estimated leg length, and low to moderate for weight, BMI, arm and estimated arm muscle circumference, triceps skinfold, and grip strength. CONCLUSION: Allowing for the relatively broad chronological age intervals, the inter-age correlations for height, weight and BMI were at the low end, while those for grip strength and for strength per unit body weight for males (though not females) were generally in the range of correlations noted in studies of European samples. Likely associated with improved health, nutritional, and sanitation conditions, obesity and overweight were emerging among adults by 2000. Obesity and overweight in adults paralleled the introduction of mechanized agriculture that reduced routine physical work. Among children, the association of obesity and overweight is likely with increased nutritional availability, but poor choices in diet.

Growth status and age at peak height velocity among youth participants in several sports: the Cracow longitudinal study.

BACKGROUND: Studies addressing age at peak height velocity (PHV) in longitudinal samples of participants in sports are relatively limited. PURPOSE: To compare the growth status and estimated ages at PHV of longitudinal samples girls and boys active in sport with peers not active in sport, and to compare estimated ages at PHV among longitudinal samples of Polish youth active in sport. METHODS: Records from the Cracow Longitudinal Study, which measured youth annually from 8 to 18 years, were screened to identify individuals regularly active in sport. Participants in athletics (22 girls, 10 boys), soccer (12 boys), and other team (6 girls, 7 boys) and individual (6 girls, 9 boys) sports were identified; 107 girls and 172 boys were not active in sport. Heights and weights of participants in sports and non-involved peers were compared. Longitudinal height records of individuals were fit with the SITAR model to estimate age at PHV. Ages at PHV of boys and girls active in sport and peers not active in sports were compared with sex-specific ANOVAs. RESULTS: Ages at PHV of boys participating in athletics and soccer were similar to age at PHV of boys not active in sport, while ages at PHV of boys in other team sports (basketball, volleyball, handball) and individual sports (skiing, gymnastics, acrobatics) were, respectively, slightly earlier and later. Among girls, age at PHV of participants in team sports (basketball, netball) was earlier, while ages at PHV among participants in athletics and other individual sports (equestrian, acrobatics, shooting) were slightly later compared to non-athlete peers. CONCLUSION: Ages at PHV varied among participants in different sports and were consistent with estimates in other longitudinal samples of Polish youth athletes.

Age at peak height velocity in Polish adolescents: Effect of socioeconomic factors.

Age at peak height velocity (APHV) is an indicator of maturity timing which is applicable to both sexes, and which is influenced by environmental factors. The objective of this study was to assess variation in APHV associated with several indicators of socioeconomic status (SES) in a longitudinal sample of Polish adolescents. The sample included 739 boys born in 1983 and followed annually from 12 to 16 years, and 597 girls born in 1985 and followed annually from 9 to 13 years. The height records were fitted with the SITAR model to estimate APHV. SES was estimated using principal component analysis of indicators of familial status based on parental education, family size, living conditions and household possessions. Statistical analyses included analysis of variance (one-way for general SES and three-way for parental education and family size) and Tukey post-hoc tests for unequal samples. General SES (p <.001) and family size (p < .05) significantly influenced APHV among boys, while only maternal education (p < .05) significantly influenced APHV among girls. Among youth from families of higher SES, as defined by the respective indicators, APHV was attained significantly earlier, on average, than in peers from families of lower SES. Overall, the results showed a sex-dependent effect of SES on APHV, and highlighted the influence of favorable socioeconomic conditions for optimal growth and maturation during adolescence.

Nutritional status of infants and young children in India across three decades: Analysis of five national family health surveys.

BACKGROUND: Three indicators of early childhood undernutrition and associated factors are evaluated among under-5 children in five National Family Health Surveys in India spanning 1992 to 2021. METHODS: Data for 533,495 children under 5 years of age (U-5) were analysed in the context of three commonly used indicators of early childhood undernutrition - wasting, stunting and underweight. In addition to descriptive and inferential statistics, binary logistic regression was used to estimate the effects of specific explanatory factors on the three indicators using adjusted odds ratios. RESULTS: Over the three-decade interval, stunting was reduced by 22.1% in boys and 20.9% in girls, followed by underweight, 19.3% in boys and 17.4% in girls; wasting, in contrast, was reduced to a considerably lesser extent, 2.8% in boys and 0.9% in girls. Demographic, maternal and socioeconomic factors were associated with the incidence of early childhood undernutrition, specifically among young mothers and those with less education in low-income families, and among children from Scheduled Tribes or Scheduled Castes. Stunting and underweight declined significantly over the past three decades while wasting changed negligibly. The disparity in the occurrence of early childhood undernutrition was apparent throughout socioeconomic categories and regions of India. CONCLUSIONS: The results highlight the need for special programs aimed at reducing waste among children and also the need for customized initiatives focused on the improvement of maternal education and wealth in addition to other ancillary factors related to regional variation.

Body size and three estimates of skeletal age: Relationships with strength and motor performance among male soccer players 9-12 and 13-16 years.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the associations between height, weight, and three estimates of skeletal age (SA) and the strength and motor performance of male soccer players in two chronological age (CA) groups, 9-12 (n = 60) and 13-16 (n = 52) years. METHODS: Height, weight, strength (grip), speed (5 m, 20 m sprints), acceleration (time at crossing 10 m in 20 m sprint), agility (figure-of-eight run), power (vertical jump), and endurance (intermittent shuttle run) were measured. SA was assessed with the TW2 RUS, TW3 RUS, and Fels methods; each SA was expressed as the standardized residual of the regression of SA on CA (SAsr). Hierarchical multiple regression was used. RESULTS: Body size accounted for ≥50% of the variance in grip strength in both CA groups; the body size × SAsr for each method and SAsr alone added little to the explained variance. Body size, body size × SAsr interactions, and SAsr per se with each method accounted for small percentages of variance in motor tasks among players 9-12 years, while body size explained a larger proportion of variance in motor tasks (except the endurance run) among players 13-16 years; body size × SAsr interactions for TW2 and TW3 more so than Fels added to the explained variances. For the endurance run, only SAsr per se with each method accounted for significant portions of the variance. CONCLUSION: Body size and the three estimates of SA significantly influenced strength and motor performance, but the explained variance varied between CA groups and among SA methods and performance tasks.

Secular change in heights of rural adults in west-central poland between 1986 and 2016: The transition from pre- to post-communism.

Secular change in the heights of adult men and women resident in ten rural communities in west-central Poland in four decennial surveys between 1986 and 2016 is considered. The adults were parents of children attending schools in rural communities in the province of Poznan. During each survey, parents of school children were asked to complete a questionnaire which requested their ages, heights and completed levels of education. Ages were reported in whole years. The self-reported heights were adjusted for the tendency of individuals to overestimate height. Height loss among of individuals 35+ years was estimated with sex-specific equations and was added to the adjusted heights. Secular gains in heights of adult males across the 30 year interval, and across the 1986-1996 and 2006-2016 surveys were, on average, larger than corresponding gains in heights of adult females; the sex difference between 1996 and 2006 surveys was negligible. When heights were regressed on year of birth, heights of males and females born before 1950 (prior to World War II and shortly after) showed minimal and non-significant secular changes, while heights of those born post-1950 showed larger and significant secular gains, more so in males than in females. The results highlight significant secular trends in the heights of rural adults over a 30-year interval. Consistent with other studies in Poland, the positive trends likely reflected political, educational and socio-economic changes and by inference improved nutritional and health conditions across generations.

Variation in body size and weight status among Hindu and Muslim Indian males born in the 1890s through the 1950s.

Hindus and Muslims represent the two largest religions in India, and also differ in nutritional status, health-related habits and standard of living associated with economic disparities. In this context, the present study considered estimated secular changes in body size, proportions, and weight status among Hindu and Muslim Indian men. The data are from anthropological surveys in the 1970s which included measurements of height, weight and sitting height of 43,950 males 18-84 years (birth years 1891-1957). Leg length was estimated; the BMI and sitting height/height ratio were calculated. Heights of men 35 + years were adjusted for estimated height loss with age. Weight status was also classified relative to WHO criteria for the BMI. Anthropometric characteristics of the two groups were compared with MANCOVA with age and geographic region as covariates. Linear regression of height on year of birth was also used to estimate secular change in each group. Heights, weights, and BMIs tended to be, on average, greater among Muslim than Hindu men at most ages, while distributions by weight status between groups were negligible. Sitting height was greater among Muslim men but estimated leg length did not differ between groups; the sitting height/height ratio thus suggested proportionally shorter legs among Muslim men. Results of the regression analyses indicated negligible differences in secular change between groups across the total span of birth years but indicated a decline in adjusted heights of men in both groups born between 1891 through 1930s and little secular change among those born in the 1930s through 1957. The variation in heights, weights and BMIs between Muslim and Hindu men at most ages suggested variation in socio-economic status and dietary habits between the groups, whereas the negligible estimated secular changes in height between groups likely reflected economic, social, and nutritional conditions during the interval of British rule and the transition to independence.

Influence of body size and skeletal maturity status on strength and motor performances of soccer players 9-16 years.

The contributions of height, weight and skeletal age (SA) to strength and motor performances of male soccer players 9-12 (n = 60) and 13-16 (n = 52) years were estimated. SA was assessed with the Fels method, and was expressed as the standardized residual of the regression of SA on chronological age CA (SAsr). Static strength (right + left grip), speed (5 m, 20 m sprints), acceleration (10 to 20 m), agility (figure-of-eight run), explosive strength (vertical jump) and endurance (yo-yo intermittent shuttle run, 13-16 years only) were measured. Hierarchical multiple regression was used. The interaction of SAsr with body size (height and height x weight interaction) explained most of the variance in strength in both age groups, 9-12 years (51.6%) and 13-16 years (56.7%), and in speed (31.4%, 38.7%), acceleration (39.6%), and explosive strength (32.6%) among players 13-16 years. In contrast, SAsr alone explained limited amounts of variance in strength, speed, acceleration and vertical jump among players 9-12 years (1.4-4.5%) and 13-16 years (0-0.5%). Results for agility varied with CA group, while SAsr per se was the primary contributor to endurance among players 13-16 years (18.5% of the variance). Although the influence of body size and skeletal maturity status on performances was significant, the explained variance differed among tasks and between CA groups, and suggested a role for other factors affecting performances of the soccer players.

Estimating Maturity Status in Elite Youth Soccer Players: Evaluation of Methods.

PURPOSE: The objective of this study is to evaluate the concordance of predicted maturity status classifications (pre-, circa-, or post-peak height velocity (PHV)) relative to observed age at PHV in youth soccer players. METHODS: Longitudinal height records for 124 male soccer players were extracted from academy records spanning the 2000 to 2022 seasons. Age at PHV for each player was estimated with the Superimposition by Translation and Rotation model. Players were classified as pre-, circa-, or post-PHV using both ±1- and ±0.5-yr criteria to define the circa-PHV interval. Maturity status was estimated with several prediction protocols: maturity offset (Mirwald, Moore-1, Moore-2), maturity ratio (Fransen), and percentage of predicted adult height (PAH%) using the Khamis-Roche and Tanner-Whitehouse 2 equations using several bands: 85% to 96%, 88% to 96%, 88% to 93%, and 90% to 93% for the circa-PHV interval, and visual evaluation of individual growth curves alone or with PAH% based on Khamis-Roche and Tanner-Whitehouse 2. Concordance of maturity status classifications based on complete growth curves and predicted estimates of maturity status was addressed with percentage agreement and Cohen's kappa. RESULTS: Visual evaluation of the growth curves had the highest concordance (≈80%) with maturity status classifications (pre-, circa-, post-PHV) based on longitudinal data for individual players. Predicted maturity offset with the Mirwald, Moore-1, and Fransen equations misclassified about one-third to one-half of the players, whereas concordance based on PAH% varied with the band used, but not with the method of height prediction. CONCLUSIONS: Visual assessment of the individual growth curves by an experienced assessor provides an accurate estimate of maturity status relative to PHV. Maturity offset prediction equations misclassify the majority of players, whereas PAH% provides a reasonably valid alternative.

Ages at peak height velocity in male soccer players 11-16 years: relationships with skeletal age and comparisons among longitudinal studies.

Estimated ages at take-off (TO) and at peak height velocity (PHV) based on two models and maturity status based upon age at PHV and skeletal age (SA) were compared in a longitudinal sample of male soccer players. In addition, estimated ages at PHV in 13 longitudinal samples of soccer players were compared. The longitudinal height records of 58 players of European ancestry, measured annually on four or five occasions between 11 and 16 years, were modeled with Superimposition by Translation and Rotation (SITAR) and Functional Principal Component Analysis (FPCA) to estimate ages at TO and PHV. SAs were assessed with the Fels method. Ages at PHV in 13 longitudinal samples of soccer players (Europe 7, Japan 6) were evaluated with meta-analysis. Estimated ages at TO, 11.2 ± 0.8 (SITAR) and 11.0 ± 0.8 (FCPA) years, and at PHV, 13.6 ± 0.9 (SITAR) and 13.7 ± 0.0 (FCPA) years, were similar. An earlier age at PHV was associated with advanced skeletal maturity status (rho = -0.77 at ~14 years). Ages at PHV among European players indicated a north (later) - south (earlier) gradient, and were later than ages at PHV among Japanese players. In summary, ages at TO and PHV were similar with SITAR and FPCA, and ages at PHV were most strongly correlated with SA at ~14 years. Mean ages at PHV showed a north-south gradient among European samples, and were later compared to Japanese samples.

Interrelationships among skeletal age, growth status and motor performances in female athletes 10-15 years.

BACKGROUND: Motor performances of youth are related to growth and maturity status, among other factors. AIM: To estimate the contribution of skeletal maturity status per se to the motor performances of female athletes aged 10-15 years and the mediation effects of growth status on the relationships. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Skeletal age (TW3 RUS SA), body size, proportions, estimated fat-free mass (FFM), motor performances, training history and participation motivation were assessed in 80 non-skeletally mature female participants in several sports. Hierarchical and regression-based statistical mediation analyses were used. RESULTS: SA per se explained a maximum of 1.8% and 5.8% of the variance in motor performances of athletes aged 10-12 and 13-15 years, respectively, over and above that explained by covariates. Body size, proportions, and hours per week of training and participation motivation explained, respectively, a maximum of 40.7%, 18.8%, and 22.6% of the variance in performances. Mediation analysis indicated specific indirect effects of SA through stature and body mass, alone or in conjunction with FFM on performances. CONCLUSION: SA per se accounted for small and non-significant amounts of variance in several motor performances of female youth athletes; rather, SA influenced performances indirectly through effects on stature, body mass and estimated FFM.

Regional variation in body size and estimated secular change among adult Indian males born in the 1890s-1950s.

Regional variation in the body size of Indian men 18-84 years of age (birth years 1891-1957) was considered. Heights, weights, and BMIs of Indian males from four regions of the country - North, East-Northeast, Central, and West were compared. Heights of men 35+ years of age were adjusted for estimated height loss with age; the estimate was added to observed height to provide an estimate of maximum height. Linear regressions of measured height and estimated maximum height on year of birth were used to evaluate secular change by region. Differences in measured and estimated maximum heights and weight among regions were significant in all age groups, while differences in the BMI were significant in all age groups except 55+ years. Men from the North region were tallest and those from the East-Northeast region were shortest, while body weight and the BMI varied among regions. Regression analyses of year of birth on measured and estimated maximum heights indicated small differences in estimates of secular change among regions but suggested a decline in estimated maximum heights with age among men in the four regions born in 1891 through the 1930s, and small but variable estimates of secular change in heights among men born in the 1930s through 1957. The variation likely reflected socio-economic disparities and ecological differences among regions, and by inference nutritional status though data are limited.

Fine and gross motor skills in 7-10 years old Indian children exposed to a natural disaster during early development.

Fetal life and infancy are extremely sensitive to adverse environmental conditions. This study aimed to assess the effect of exposure to a natural disaster (cyclone Aila) in utero or during infancy on fine and gross motor functions in preadolescent Indian children. The study was conducted in West Bengal, India, and included approximately 700 children (7-10 years old) who were prenatally or postnatally exposed to cyclone Aila and a nonaffected group. Anthropometric measures included height, weight, and birthweight. Socioeconomic status was based on parental education, family size, and income. Motor functions were assessed using the short form of Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency (BOT-2). Statistical analyses included, for example, generalized linear models. There were no differences in motor functions relative to the timing of the exposure (trimester) during pregnancy. Compared to the controls, prenatal Aila exposure resulted in poorer performance in all BOT-2 subtests, except for fine motor precision, strength, and balance (the last in boys), while postnatal Aila exposure, compared to the controls, resulted in poorer performance in manual dexterity, bilateral coordination, balance (girls only), and speed and agility. Early life exposure to a natural disaster has long-term adverse effect on motor proficiency in children. By inference, the welfare of pregnant women and infants should be of particular concern for emergency and health services during an environmental cataclysm.

Body size and weight status of adult Indian males born in the 1890s-1950s: Age and secular change in the context of demographic, economic, and political transformation.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate secular change in body size and weight status of adult Indian males born in 1891-1957 and surveyed in the 1970s. METHODS: Data are from Anthropological Surveys. Only men were included in the surveys due to high female illiteracy and lack of female researchers. Indian society was also strongly conservative at the time, especially in rural areas, and the measurement of women by men was not permitted. Heights and weights of 43 950 males 18-84 years (born 1891-1957) were measured. The BMI was calculated; weight status of individuals was classified relative to WHO criteria and suggested criteria for the Asia-Pacific region. Heights of men 35+ years were also adjusted for age-related stature loss. Trends in measured and adjusted heights, body weight and the BMI, and in weight status were evaluated by age groups. Linear regression of measured height and adjusted height on year of birth was used to estimate secular effects. RESULTS: Mean heights declined slightly with age to 50 years and declined sharply through 60+ years, while mean weights increased into the 40s and then declined. Mean BMIs were relatively stable from 30 to 60 years. The prevalence of thinness and normal weight was high, while that of overweight and obesity was low. Regression analyses indicated limited secular change across the total range of birth years but suggested a decline in adjusted heights among men born in 1891 through the 1930s, and little change among men born subsequently. CONCLUSIONS: Age-related trends and results of the regression analyses by year of birth indicated negligible secular change in heights of Indian men 18-84 years born between 1891 and 1957. BMIs indicated a high prevalence of thinness and normal weight and low prevalence of overweight and obesity.

Intra-observer reproducibility and inter-observer agreement of Fels skeletal age assessments among male tennis players 8-16 years.

BACKGROUND: Skeletal age (SA) is an estimate of biological maturity status that is commonly used in sport-related medical examinations. This study considered intra-observer reproducibility and inter-observer agreement of SA assessments among male tennis players. METHODS: SA was assessed with the Fels method in 97 male tennis players with chronological ages (CA) spanning 8.7-16.8 years. Radiographs were evaluated by two independent trained observers. Based on the difference between SA and CA, players were classified as late, average or early maturing; if a player was skeletally mature, he was noted as such as an SA is not assigned. RESULTS: The magnitude of intra-individual differences between repeated SA assessments were d = 0.008 year (observer A) and d = 0.001 year (observer B); the respective coefficients of variation were 1.11% and 1.75%. Inter-observer mean differences were negligible (t = 1.252, p = 0.210) and the intra-class correlation coefficient was nearly perfect (ICC = 0.995). Concordance of classifications of players by maturity status between observers was 90%. CONCLUSION: Fels SA assessments were highly reproducible and showed an acceptable level of inter-observer agreement between trained examiners. Classifications of players by skeletal maturity status based on assessments of the two observers were highly concordant, though not 100%. The results highlight the importance of experienced observers in skeletal maturity assessments.

Characteristics of external loads of Hockey5s associated with the new version of U16 youth field hockey competition.

External workloads associated Hockey 5 s, the new version of youth field hockey, were evaluated in 31 elite U16 male field players (15.4 ± 0.7 years) from three national teams. Mixed-longitudinal observations for the 31 players provided complete data for 33 forwards and 43 defenders. Activities of the players during games were monitored with the GPSports SPI Elite System with a sampling frequency of 10 Hz and were analysed with GPSports Team AMS (version R1 2015.14, Australia). Observed variables did not differ between forwards and defenders, and the three periods of play were differentiated only by maximal speed in the second and third periods. The greatest distances covered were in speed zone 3 (10.0-15.9 km h-1; 35.5-38.2%) and the smallest in speed zones 4 (16.0-22.9 km h-1; 14.8-15.6%) and 5 (> 23 km h-1; 0.4-1.4%). The trends indicated high intensity levels for the entire match and by position and periods. Active time of forwards and defenders accounted for about one-half of a game's duration (~ 15.7 of 30 min). Overall, the Hockey 5s format was highly demanding of players and included relatively short intervals for recovery. The results emphasize the need for preparation that includes specific mixed anaerobic and aerobic training and also the importance of recovery during breaks.

Age at menarche, environmental stress, and social inequality: Evidence from Poland in the 1930s-1950s.

OBJECTIVE: To address the relationship between socioeconomic factors and age of menarche among Polish women born and reared in periods that varied considerably in environmental stresses: the Great Depression of the 1930s, the interval of World War II, and the interval of communist rule following World War II through the 1950s. METHODS: The data set included information on age at menarche and socioeconomic status (SES) of 718 women born during the Great Depression (n = 182), WWII (n = 189), and post-WWII through the 1950s (n = 347). A structured semi-parametric statistical model (generalized additive model [GAM] class) was used for analysis. An ANOVA-like linear model was used to test for marginal effects of SES-related factors and their interactions together with nonparametric seasonal effect. RESULTS: The influence of period of birth, month of birth, region of early childhood, and father's education, and the interaction between period of birth and father's education on age at menarche were statistically significant. During the economic crisis and the interval of WWII, differences in ages at menarche between the extreme categories of father's education were marked. The differences in ages at menarche between women from the lowest and highest social groups were markedly reduced among women born during the post-war interval. In addition, women born in February-March attained menarche earlier than women born in September-October. CONCLUSIONS: Unpredictable conditions associated with the economic crisis and war conditions had a stronger impact on age at menarche among women from families of lower SES compared to women from better economic circumstances. Individuals born and reared in low SES conditions likely suffered more severe deterioration across the spectrum of the standard of living and quality of life compared to those with a higher SES.

Body Size, Fatness and Skeletal Age in Female Youth Soccer Players.

Growth and maturation are central concerns in the organization of training and competitions in youth sports. This study examined maturity-associated variation in body size and adiposity among adolescent girls participating in competitive age group youth soccer. The sample included 441 players 10.08-16.73 years of age. Stature and body mass were measured and body composition was predicted. The Fels method was used to estimate skeletal age. Skeletally maturity status (late, average or early maturing) was based on the difference between chronological and skeletal age for each player. Mean stature approximated the 50th percentiles of the general population in all competitive age groups, while mean weight fluctuated between 50th and 75th percentiles. Age- and maturity-specific means for estimated fat mass ranged between 18.0% and 28.2%. The number of players classified as skeletally mature increased with competitive age groups (under-13: 0%; under-15: 8%; under-17: 49%). In general, early maturing girls tended to be heavier than their age group peers and especially when compared to late maturing players.