Quantitative Tyrosine Phosphoproteomics of Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR) Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitor-treated Lung Adenocarcinoma Cells Reveals Potential Novel Biomarkers of Therapeutic Response.

Mutations in the Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) kinase domain, such as the L858R missense mutation and deletions spanning the conserved sequence 747LREA750, are sensitive to tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs). The gatekeeper site residue mutation, T790M accounts for around 60% of acquired resistance to EGFR TKIs. The first generation EGFR TKIs, erlotinib and gefitinib, and the second generation inhibitor, afatinib are FDA approved for initial treatment of EGFR mutated lung adenocarcinoma. The predominant biomarker of EGFR TKI responsiveness is the presence of EGFR TKI-sensitizing mutations. However, 30-40% of patients with EGFR mutations exhibit primary resistance to these TKIs, underscoring the unmet need of identifying additional biomarkers of treatment response. Here, we sought to characterize the dynamics of tyrosine phosphorylation upon EGFR TKI treatment of mutant EGFR-driven human lung adenocarcinoma cell lines with varying sensitivity to EGFR TKIs, erlotinib and afatinib. We employed stable isotope labeling with amino acids in cell culture (SILAC)-based quantitative mass spectrometry to identify and quantify tyrosine phosphorylated peptides. The proportion of tyrosine phosphorylated sites that had reduced phosphorylation upon erlotinib or afatinib treatment correlated with the degree of TKI-sensitivity. Afatinib, an irreversible EGFR TKI, more effectively inhibited tyrosine phosphorylation of a majority of the substrates. The phosphosites with phosphorylation SILAC ratios that correlated with the TKI-sensitivity of the cell lines include sites on kinases, such as EGFR-Y1197 and MAPK7-Y221, and adaptor proteins, such as SHC1-Y349/350, ERRFI1-Y394, GAB1-Y689, STAT5A-Y694, DLG3-Y705, and DAPP1-Y139, suggesting these are potential biomarkers of TKI sensitivity. DAPP1, is a novel target of mutant EGFR signaling and Y-139 is the major site of DAPP1 tyrosine phosphorylation. We also uncovered several off-target effects of these TKIs, such as MST1R-Y1238/Y1239 and MET-Y1252/1253. This study provides unique insight into the TKI-mediated modulation of mutant EGFR signaling, which can be applied to the development of biomarkers of EGFR TKI response.

A multi-omic analysis of human naïve CD4+ T cells.

BACKGROUND: Cellular function and diversity are orchestrated by complex interactions of fundamental biomolecules including DNA, RNA and proteins. Technological advances in genomics, epigenomics, transcriptomics and proteomics have enabled massively parallel and unbiased measurements. Such high-throughput technologies have been extensively used to carry out broad, unbiased studies, particularly in the context of human diseases. Nevertheless, a unified analysis of the genome, epigenome, transcriptome and proteome of a single human cell type to obtain a coherent view of the complex interplay between various biomolecules has not yet been undertaken. Here, we report the first multi-omic analysis of human primary naïve CD4+ T cells isolated from a single individual. RESULTS: Integrating multi-omics datasets allowed us to investigate genome-wide methylation and its effect on mRNA/protein expression patterns, extent of RNA editing under normal physiological conditions and allele specific expression in naïve CD4+ T cells. In addition, we carried out a multi-omic comparative analysis of naïve with primary resting memory CD4+ T cells to identify molecular changes underlying T cell differentiation. This analysis provided mechanistic insights into how several molecules involved in T cell receptor signaling are regulated at the DNA, RNA and protein levels. Phosphoproteomics revealed downstream signaling events that regulate these two cellular states. Availability of multi-omics data from an identical genetic background also allowed us to employ novel proteogenomics approaches to identify individual-specific variants and putative novel protein coding regions in the human genome. CONCLUSIONS: We utilized multiple high-throughput technologies to derive a comprehensive profile of two primary human cell types, naïve CD4+ T cells and memory CD4+ T cells, from a single donor. Through vertical as well as horizontal integration of whole genome sequencing, methylation arrays, RNA-Seq, miRNA-Seq, proteomics, and phosphoproteomics, we derived an integrated and comparative map of these two closely related immune cells and identified potential molecular effectors of immune cell differentiation following antigen encounter.

Chronic exposure to chewing tobacco selects for overexpression of stearoyl-CoA desaturase in normal oral keratinocytes.

Chewing tobacco is a common practice in certain socio-economic sections of southern Asia, particularly in the Indian subcontinent and has been well associated with head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. The molecular mechanisms of chewing tobacco which leads to malignancy remains unclear. In large majority of studies, short-term exposure to tobacco has been evaluated. From a biological perspective, however, long-term (chronic) exposure to tobacco mimics the pathogenesis of oral cancer more closely. We developed a cell line model to investigate the chronic effects of chewing tobacco. Chronic exposure to tobacco resulted in higher cellular proliferation and invasive ability of the normal oral keratinocytes (OKF6/TERT1). We carried out quantitative proteomic analysis of OKF6/TERT1 cells chronically treated with chewing tobacco compared to the untreated cells. We identified a total of 3,636 proteins among which expression of 408 proteins were found to be significantly altered. Among the overexpressed proteins, stearoyl-CoA desaturase (SCD) was found to be 2.6-fold overexpressed in the tobacco treated cells. Silencing/inhibition of SCD using its specific siRNA or inhibitor led to a decrease in cellular proliferation, invasion and colony forming ability of not only the tobacco treated cells but also in a panel of head and neck cancer cell lines. These findings suggest that chronic exposure to chewing tobacco induced carcinogenesis in non-malignant oral epithelial cells and SCD plays an essential role in this process. The current study provides evidence that SCD can act as a potential therapeutic target in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma, especially in patients who are users of tobacco.

Global phosphotyrosine survey in triple-negative breast cancer reveals activation of multiple tyrosine kinase signaling pathways.

Breast cancer is the most prevalent cancer in women worldwide. About 15-20% of all breast cancers are triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) and are often highly aggressive when compared to other subtypes of breast cancers. To better characterize the biology that underlies the TNBC phenotype, we profiled the phosphotyrosine proteome of a panel of twenty-six TNBC cell lines using quantitative high resolution Fourier transform mass spectrometry. A heterogeneous pattern of tyrosine kinase activation was observed based on 1,789 tyrosine-phosphorylated peptides identified from 969 proteins. One of the tyrosine kinases, AXL, was found to be activated in a majority of aggressive TNBC cell lines and was accompanied by a higher level of AXL expression. High levels of AXL expression are correlated with a significant decrease in patient survival. Treatment of cells bearing activated AXL with a humanized AXL antibody inhibited cell proliferation and migration in vitro, and tumor growth in mice. Overall, our global phosphoproteomic analysis provided new insights into the heterogeneity in the activation status of tyrosine kinase pathways in TNBCs. Our approach presents an effective means of identifying important novel biomarkers and targets for therapy such as AXL in TNBC.

Calcium calmodulin dependent kinase kinase 2 - a novel therapeutic target for gastric adenocarcinoma.

Gastric cancer is one of the most common gastrointestinal malignancies and is associated with poor prognosis. Exploring alterations in the proteomic landscape of gastric cancer is likely to provide potential biomarkers for early detection and molecules for targeted therapeutic intervention. Using iTRAQ-based quantitative proteomic analysis, we identified 22 proteins that were overexpressed and 17 proteins that were downregulated in gastric tumor tissues as compared to the adjacent normal tissue. Calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase kinase 2 (CAMKK2) was found to be 7-fold overexpressed in gastric tumor tissues. Immunohistochemical labeling of tumor tissue microarrays for validation of CAMKK2 overexpression revealed that it was indeed overexpressed in 94% (92 of 98) of gastric cancer cases. Silencing of CAMKK2 using siRNA significantly reduced cell proliferation, colony formation and invasion of gastric cancer cells. Our results demonstrate that CAMKK2 signals in gastric cancer through AMPK activation and suggest that CAMKK2 could be a novel therapeutic target in gastric cancer.

Heterogeneity of pancreatic cancer metastases in a single patient revealed by quantitative proteomics.

Many patients with pancreatic cancer have metastases to distant organs at the time of initial presentation. Recent studies examining the evolution of pancreatic cancer at the genetic level have shown that clonal complexity of metastatic pancreatic cancer is already initiated within primary tumors, and organ-specific metastases are derived from different subclones. However, we do not yet understand to what extent the evolution of pancreatic cancer contributes to proteomic and signaling alterations. We hypothesized that genetic heterogeneity of metastatic pancreatic cancer results in heterogeneity at the proteome level. To address this, we employed a model system in which cells isolated from three sites of metastasis (liver, lung, and peritoneum) from a single patient were compared. We used a SILAC-based accurate quantitative proteomic strategy combined with high-resolution mass spectrometry to analyze the total proteome and tyrosine phosphoproteome of each of the distal metastases. Our data revealed distinct patterns of both overall proteome expression and tyrosine kinase activities across the three different metastatic lesions. This heterogeneity was significant because it led to differential sensitivity of the neoplastic cells to small molecule inhibitors targeting various kinases and other pathways. For example, R428, a tyrosine kinase inhibitor that targets Axl receptor tyrosine kinase, was able to inhibit cells derived from lung and liver metastases much more effectively than cells from the peritoneal metastasis. Finally, we confirmed that administration of R428 in mice bearing xenografts of cells derived from the three different metastatic sites significantly diminished tumors formed from liver- and lung-metastasis-derived cell lines as compared with tumors derived from the peritoneal metastasis cell line. Overall, our data provide proof-of-principle support that personalized therapy of multiple organ metastases in a single patient should involve the administration of a combination of agents, with each agent targeted to the features of different subclones.

Pancreatic Cancer Database: an integrative resource for pancreatic cancer.

Pancreatic cancer is the fourth leading cause of cancer-related death in the world. The etiology of pancreatic cancer is heterogeneous with a wide range of alterations that have already been reported at the level of the genome, transcriptome, and proteome. The past decade has witnessed a large number of experimental studies using high-throughput technology platforms to identify genes whose expression at the transcript or protein levels is altered in pancreatic cancer. Based on expression studies, a number of molecules have also been proposed as potential biomarkers for diagnosis and prognosis of this deadly cancer. Currently, there are no repositories which provide an integrative view of multiple Omics data sets from published research on pancreatic cancer. Here, we describe the development of a web-based resource, Pancreatic Cancer Database (http://www.pancreaticcancerdatabase.org), as a unified platform for pancreatic cancer research. PCD contains manually curated information pertaining to quantitative alterations in miRNA, mRNA, and proteins obtained from small-scale as well as high-throughput studies of pancreatic cancer tissues and cell lines. We believe that PCD will serve as an integrative platform for scientific community involved in pancreatic cancer research.

A draft map of the human proteome.

The availability of human genome sequence has transformed biomedical research over the past decade. However, an equivalent map for the human proteome with direct measurements of proteins and peptides does not exist yet. Here we present a draft map of the human proteome using high-resolution Fourier-transform mass spectrometry. In-depth proteomic profiling of 30 histologically normal human samples, including 17 adult tissues, 7 fetal tissues and 6 purified primary haematopoietic cells, resulted in identification of proteins encoded by 17,294 genes accounting for approximately 84% of the total annotated protein-coding genes in humans. A unique and comprehensive strategy for proteogenomic analysis enabled us to discover a number of novel protein-coding regions, which includes translated pseudogenes, non-coding RNAs and upstream open reading frames. This large human proteome catalogue (available as an interactive web-based resource at http://www.humanproteomemap.org) will complement available human genome and transcriptome data to accelerate biomedical research in health and disease.

Differential proteomic analysis of synovial fluid from rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis patients.

BACKGROUND: Rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis are two common musculoskeletal disorders that affect the joints. Despite high prevalence rates, etiological factors involved in these disorders remain largely unknown. Dissecting the molecular aspects of these disorders will significantly contribute to improving their diagnosis and clinical management. In order to identify proteins that are differentially expressed between these two conditions, a quantitative proteomic profiling of synovial fluid obtained from rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis patients was carried out by using iTRAQ labeling followed by high resolution mass spectrometry analysis. RESULTS: We have identified 575 proteins out of which 135 proteins were found to be differentially expressed by ≥3-fold in the synovial fluid of rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis patients. Proteins not previously reported to be associated with rheumatoid arthritis including, coronin-1A (CORO1A), fibrinogen like-2 (FGL2), and macrophage capping protein (CAPG) were found to be upregulated in rheumatoid arthritis. Proteins such as CD5 molecule-like protein (CD5L), soluble scavenger receptor cysteine-rich domain-containing protein (SSC5D), and TTK protein kinase (TTK) were found to be upregulated in the synovial fluid of osteoarthritis patients. We confirmed the upregulation of CAPG in rheumatoid arthritis synovial fluid by multiple reaction monitoring assay as well as by Western blot. Pathway analysis of differentially expressed proteins revealed a significant enrichment of genes involved in glycolytic pathway in rheumatoid arthritis. CONCLUSIONS: We report here the largest identification of proteins from the synovial fluid of rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis patients using a quantitative proteomics approach. The novel proteins identified from our study needs to be explored further for their role in the disease pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis.Sartaj Ahmad and Raja Sekhar Nirujogi contributed equally to this article.

Plasma Proteome Database as a resource for proteomics research: 2014 update.

Plasma Proteome Database (PPD; http://www.plasmaproteomedatabase.org/) was initially described in the year 2005 as a part of Human Proteome Organization's (HUPO's) pilot initiative on Human Plasma Proteome Project. Since then, improvements in proteomic technologies and increased throughput have led to identification of a large number of novel plasma proteins. To keep up with this increase in data, we have significantly enriched the proteomic information in PPD. This database currently contains information on 10,546 proteins detected in serum/plasma of which 3784 have been reported in two or more studies. The latest version of the database also incorporates mass spectrometry-derived data including experimentally verified proteotypic peptides used for multiple reaction monitoring assays. Other novel features include published plasma/serum concentrations for 1278 proteins along with a separate category of plasma-derived extracellular vesicle proteins. As plasma proteins have become a major thrust in the field of biomarkers, we have enabled a batch-based query designated Plasma Proteome Explorer, which will permit the users in screening a list of proteins or peptides against known plasma proteins to assess novelty of their data set. We believe that PPD will facilitate both clinical and basic research by serving as a comprehensive reference of plasma proteins in humans and accelerate biomarker discovery and translation efforts.

Identification of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma biomarker candidates through proteomic analysis of cancer cell secretome.

Protein biomarker discovery for early detection of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) is a crucial unmet need to improve patient outcomes. Mass spectrometry-based proteomics has emerged as a promising tool for identification of biomarkers in different cancer types. Proteins secreted from cancer cells can serve as potential biomarkers for early diagnosis. In the current study, we have used isobaric tag for relative and absolute quantitation (iTRAQ) labeling methodology coupled with high resolution mass spectrometry to identify and quantitate secreted proteins from a panel of head and neck carcinoma cell lines. In all, we identified 2,472 proteins, of which 225 proteins were secreted at higher or lower abundance in HNSCC-derived cell lines. Of these, 148 were present in higher abundance and 77 were present in lower abundance in the cancer-cell derived secretome. We detected a higher abundance of some previously known markers for HNSCC including insulin like growth factor binding protein 3, IGFBP3 (11-fold) and opioid growth factor receptor, OGFR (10-fold) demonstrating the validity of our approach. We also identified several novel secreted proteins in HNSCC including olfactomedin-4, OLFM4 (12-fold) and hepatocyte growth factor activator, HGFA (5-fold). IHC-based validation was conducted in HNSCC using tissue microarrays which revealed overexpression of IGFBP3 and OLFM4 in 70% and 75% of the tested cases, respectively. Our study illustrates quantitative proteomics of secretome as a robust approach for identification of potential HNSCC biomarkers. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: An Updated Secretome.

SILAC-based quantitative proteomic analysis of gastric cancer secretome.

PURPOSE: Gastric cancer is a commonly occurring cancer in Asia and one of the leading causes of cancer deaths. However, there is no reliable blood-based screening test for this cancer. Identifying proteins secreted from tumor cells could lead to the discovery of clinically useful biomarkers for early detection of gastric cancer. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: A SILAC-based quantitative proteomic approach was employed to identify secreted proteins that were differentially expressed between neoplastic and non-neoplastic gastric epithelial cells. Proteins from the secretome were subjected to SDS-PAGE and SCX-based fractionation, followed by mass spectrometric analysis on an LTQ-Orbitrap Velos mass spectrometer. Immunohistochemical labeling was employed to validate a subset of candidates using tissue microarrays. RESULTS: We identified 2205 proteins in the gastric cancer secretome of which 263 proteins were overexpressed greater than fourfold in gastric cancer-derived cell lines as compared to non-neoplastic gastric epithelial cells. Three candidate proteins, proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9), lectin mannose binding 2 (LMAN2), and PDGFA-associated protein 1 (PDAP1) were validated by immunohistochemical labeling. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: We report here the largest cancer secretome described to date. The novel biomarkers identified in the current study are excellent candidates for further testing as early detection biomarkers for gastric adenocarcinoma.

Overexpression of ribosome binding protein 1 (RRBP1) in breast cancer.

The molecular events that lead to malignant transformation and subsequent metastasis of breast carcinoma include alterations in the cells at genome, transcriptome and proteome levels. In this study, we used publicly available gene expression databases to identify those candidate genes which are upregulated at the mRNA level in breast cancers but have not been systematically validated at the protein level. Based on an extensive literature search, we identified ribosome binding protein 1 (RRBP1) as a candidate that is upregulated at the mRNA level in five different studies but its protein expression had not been investigated. Immunohistochemical labeling of breast cancer tissue microarrays was carried out to determine the expression of RRBP1 in a large panel of breast cancers. We found that RRBP1 was overexpressed in 84% (177/219) of breast carcinoma cases tested. The subcellular localization of RRBP1 was mainly observed to be in the cytoplasm with intense staining in the perinuclear region. Our findings suggest that RRBP1 is an interesting molecule that can be further studied for its potential to serve as a breast cancer biomarker. This study also demonstrates how the integration of biological data from available resources in conjunction with systematic evaluation approaches can be successfully applied to clinical proteomics.

Transcriptomic Profiling of Medial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy.

Epilepsy is one of the most prevalent neurological disorders affecting ~1% of the population. Medial temporal lobe epilepsy (MTLE) is the most frequent type of epilepsy observed in adults who do not respond to pharmacological treatment. The reason for intractability in these patients has not been systematically studied. Further, no markers are available that can predict the subset of patients who will not respond to pharmacotherapy. To identify potential biomarkers of epileptogenicity, we compared the mRNA profiles of surgically resected tissue from seizure zones with non-seizure zones from cases of intractable MTLE. We identified 413 genes that exhibited ≥2-fold change that were statistically significant across these two groups. Several of these differentially expressed genes have not been previously described in the context of MTLE including claudin 11 (CLDN11) and bone morphogenetic protein receptor, type IB (BMPR1B). In addition, we found significant downregulation of a subset of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) associated genes. We also identified molecules such as BACH2 and ADAMTS15, which are already known to be associated with epilepsy. We validated one upregulated molecule, serine/threonine kinase 31 (STK31) and one downregulated molecule, SMARCA4, by immunohistochemical labeling of tissue sections. These molecules need to be further confirmed in large-scale studies to determine their potential use as diagnostic as well as prognostic markers in intractable MTLE.

Overexpression of Kinesin Associated Protein 3 (KIFAP3) in Breast Cancer.

Gene expression profiling studies on breast cancer have generated catalogs of differentially expressed genes. However, many of these genes have not been investigated for their expression at the protein level. It is possible to systematically evaluate such genes in a high-throughput fashion for their overexpression at the protein level using breast cancer tissue microarrays. Our strategy involved integration of information from publicly available repositories of gene expression to prepare a list of genes upregulated at the mRNA level in breast cancer followed by curation of the published literature to identify those genes that were not tested for overexpression at the protein level. We identified Kinesin Associated Protein 3 (KIFAP3) as one such molecule for further validation at the protein level. Immunohistochemical labeling of KIFAP3 using breast cancer tissue microarrays revealed overexpression of KIFAP3 protein in 84% (240/285) of breast cancers indicating the utility of our integrated approach of combining computational analysis with experimental biology.

Gene Expression Profiling of Tuberculous Meningitis Co-infected with HIV.

Tuberculous meningitis (TBM) is a fatal form of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection of the central nervous system (CNS). The similarities in the clinical and radiological findings in TBM cases with or without HIV make the diagnosis very challenging. Identification of genes, which are differentially expressed in brain tissues of HIV positive and HIV negative TBM patients, would enable better understanding of the molecular aspects of the infection and would also serve as an initial platform to evaluate potential biomarkers. Here, we report the identification of 796 differentially regulated genes in brain tissues of TBM patients co-infected with HIV using oligonucleotide DNA microarrays. We also performed immunohistochemical validation and confirmed the abundance of four gene products-glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), serpin peptidase inhibitor, clade A member 3 (SERPINA3), thymidine phosphorylase (TYMP/ECGF1) and heat shock 70 kDa protein 8 (HSPA8). Our study paves the way for understanding the mechanism of TBM in HIV positive patients and for further validation of potential disease biomarkers.

NetSlim: high-confidence curated signaling maps.

We previously developed NetPath as a resource for comprehensive manually curated signal transduction pathways. The pathways in NetPath contain a large number of molecules and reactions which can sometimes be difficult to visualize or interpret given their complexity. To overcome this potential limitation, we have developed a set of more stringent curation and inclusion criteria for pathway reactions to generate high-confidence signaling maps. NetSlim is a new resource that contains this 'core' subset of reactions for each pathway for easy visualization and manipulation. The pathways in NetSlim are freely available at http://www.netpath.org/netslim.

Proteogenomic analysis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis by high resolution mass spectrometry.

The genome sequencing of H37Rv strain of Mycobacterium tuberculosis was completed in 1998 followed by the whole genome sequencing of a clinical isolate, CDC1551 in 2002. Since then, the genomic sequences of a number of other strains have become available making it one of the better studied pathogenic bacterial species at the genomic level. However, annotation of its genome remains challenging because of high GC content and dissimilarity to other model prokaryotes. To this end, we carried out an in-depth proteogenomic analysis of the M. tuberculosis H37Rv strain using Fourier transform mass spectrometry with high resolution at both MS and tandem MS levels. In all, we identified 3176 proteins from Mycobacterium tuberculosis representing ~80% of its total predicted gene count. In addition to protein database search, we carried out a genome database search, which led to identification of ~250 novel peptides. Based on these novel genome search-specific peptides, we discovered 41 novel protein coding genes in the H37Rv genome. Using peptide evidence and alternative gene prediction tools, we also corrected 79 gene models. Finally, mass spectrometric data from N terminus-derived peptides confirmed 727 existing annotations for translational start sites while correcting those for 33 proteins. We report creation of a high confidence set of protein coding regions in Mycobacterium tuberculosis genome obtained by high resolution tandem mass-spectrometry at both precursor and fragment detection steps for the first time. This proteogenomic approach should be generally applicable to other organisms whose genomes have already been sequenced for obtaining a more accurate catalogue of protein-coding genes.

Quantitative tissue proteomics of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma for novel biomarker discovery.

Esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) is among the top ten most frequent malignancies worldwide. In this study, our objective was to identify potential biomarkers for ESCC through a quantitative proteomic approach using the isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantitation (iTRAQ) approach. We compared the protein expression profiles of ESCC tumor tissues with the corresponding adjacent normal tissue from ten patients. LC-MS/MS analysis of strong cation exchange chromatography fractions was carried out on an Accurate Mass QTOF mass spectrometer, which led to the identification of 687 proteins. In all, 257 proteins were identified as differentially expressed in ESCC as compared to normal. We found several previously known protein biomarkers to be upregulated in ESCC including thrombospondin 1 (THBS1), periostin 1 (POSTN) and heat shock 70 kDa protein 9 (HSPA9) confirming the validity of our approach. In addition, several novel proteins that had not been reported previously were identified in our screen. These novel biomarker candidates included prosaposin (PSAP), plectin 1 (PLEC1) and protein disulfide isomerase A 4 (PDIA4) that were further validated to be overexpressed by immunohistochemical labeling using tissue microarrays. The success of our study shows that this mass spectrometric strategy can be applied to cancers in general to develop a panel of candidate biomarkers, which can then be validated by other techniques.

A comprehensive map of the human urinary proteome.

The study of the human urinary proteome has the potential to offer significant insights into normal physiology as well as disease pathology. The information obtained from such studies could be applied to the diagnosis of various diseases. The high sensitivity, resolution, and mass accuracy of the latest generation of mass spectrometers provides an opportunity to accurately catalog the proteins present in human urine, including those present at low levels. To this end, we carried out a comprehensive analysis of human urinary proteome from healthy individuals using high-resolution Fourier transform mass spectrometry. Importantly, we used the Orbitrap for detecting ions in both MS (resolution 60 000) and MS/MS (resolution 15 000) modes. To increase the depth of our analysis, we characterized both unfractionated as well as lectin-enriched proteins in our experiments. In all, we identified 1,823 proteins with less than 1% false discovery rate, of which 671 proteins have not previously been reported as constituents of human urine. This data set should serve as a comprehensive reference list for future studies aimed at identification and characterization of urinary biomarkers for various diseases.