Bisphenol A triggers activation of ocular immune system and aggravates allergic airway inflammation.

Bisphenol A (BPA) is widely used in manufacturing plastic products, and it has been reported that exposure through the airway or orally aggravates allergic airway inflammation. Because BPA is detected in the atmosphere and indoor environments, the eyes can also be exposed to BPA. After ocular exposure to BPA and antigen via eye drops, we observed enhanced antigen uptake of antigen-presenting cells (APCs) in tear duct-associated lymphoid tissue (TALT). Additionally, we observed the formation of germinal center (GC) B cells in TALT and induction of allergic airway inflammation in mice sensitized with BPA and antigen via eye drops, followed by airway antigen exposure. We also found that DNAX-activating protein of 12 kDa (DAP12)-deficient mice displayed impaired activation of APCs enhanced by ocular exposure to BPA. These results indicate that ocular sensitization to BPA and allergen triggers allergic inflammation via TALT activation, and that DAP12 might be a key molecule for modulating the ocular immune system.

Dynamin-related protein 1 differentially regulates FcεRI- and substance P-induced mast cell activation.

BACKGROUND: The mitochondrial fission protein dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1) has been suggested to regulate mast cell (MC) activation by certain stimuli in vitro, but its functions in MCs activated by various stimuli in vivo have not yet been examined. OBJECTIVE: We sought to analyze Drp1 function in both mouse and human MCs. METHODS: We used human peripheral blood-derived cultured MCs and 2 genetic mouse models in which MCs were depleted of Drp1: Drp1fl/flMcpt5cre+/- mice and Drp1fl/flCpa3cre+/- mice. RESULTS: In mice, Drp1 depletion enhanced FcεRI-induced MC activation while suppressing substance P-stimulated MC activation in vitro and in vivo. This was also true in human peripheral blood-derived cultured MCs in vitro after pharmacologic inhibition of Drp1. CONCLUSION: Drp1 differentially regulates MC activation by various stimuli. Promoting Drp1 activation might therefore represent a novel therapy for suppressing IgE-dependent MC activation. Further, inhibiting Drp1 activation might mitigate other MC-dependent responses, such as those induced by substance P.

The role of Sp140 revealed in IgE and mast cell responses in Collaborative Cross mice.

Mouse IgE and mast cell (MC) functions have been studied primarily using inbred strains. Here, we (a) identified effects of genetic background on mouse IgE and MC phenotypes, (b) defined the suitability of various strains for studying IgE and MC functions, and (c) began to study potentially novel genes involved in such functions. We screened 47 Collaborative Cross (CC) strains, as well as C57BL/6J and BALB/cJ mice, for strength of passive cutaneous anaphylaxis (PCA) and responses to the intestinal parasite Strongyloides venezuelensis (S.v.). CC mice exhibited a diversity in PCA strength and S.v. responses. Among strains tested, C57BL/6J and CC027 mice showed, respectively, moderate and uniquely potent MC activity. Quantitative trait locus analysis and RNA sequencing of BM-derived cultured MCs (BMCMCs) from CC027 mice suggested Sp140 as a candidate gene for MC activation. siRNA-mediated knock-down of Sp140 in BMCMCs decreased IgE-dependent histamine release and cytokine production. Our results demonstrated marked variations in IgE and MC activity in vivo, and in responses to S.v., across CC strains. C57BL/6J and CC027 represent useful models for studying MC functions. Additionally, we identified Sp140 as a gene that contributes to IgE-dependent MC activation.

Thymic stromal lymphopoietin contributes to protection of mice from Strongyloides venezuelensis infection by CD4+ T cell-dependent and -independent pathways.

When animals are infected with helminthic parasites, resistant hosts mount type II helper T (Th2) immune responses to expel worms. Recent studies have clearly shown that epithelial cell-derived cytokines contribute to the induction of Th2 immune responses. Here we demonstrate the role of endogenous thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP) for protection against Strongyloides venezuelensis (S. venezuelensis) infection, utilizing TSLP receptor-deficient Crlf2-/- mice. The number of eggs per gram of feces (EPG) and worm burden were significantly higher in Crlf2-/- mice than in wild type (WT) mice. S. venezuelensis infection induced Tslp mRNA expression in the skin, lung, and intestine and also facilitated the accumulation of mast cells in the intestine in a TSLP-dependent manner. Furthermore, CD4+ T cells from S. venezuelensis-infected Crlf2-/- mice showed diminished capacity to produce Th2 cytokines in the early stage of infection. Finally, CD4+ cell-depleted Crlf2-/- mice still showed higher EPG counts and worm burden than CD4+ cell-depleted WT mice, indicating that TSLP contributes to protecting mice against S. venezuelensis infection in both CD4+ T cell-dependent and -independent manners.

Regnase-1 degradation is crucial for IL-33- and IL-25-mediated ILC2 activation.

Group 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s) are a critical innate source of type 2 cytokines in allergic inflammation. Although ILC2s are recognized as a critical cell population in the allergic inflammation, the regulatory mechanism(s) of ILC2s are less well understood. Here, we show that Regnase-1, an immune regulatory RNAse that degrades inflammatory mRNAs, negatively regulates ILC2 function and that IκB kinase (IKK) complex-mediated Regnase-1 degradation is essential for IL-33- and IL-25-induced ILC2 activation. ILC2s from Regnase-1AA/AA mice expressing a Regnase-1 S435A/S439A mutant resistant to IKK complex-mediated degradation accumulated Regnase-1 protein in response to IL-33 and IL-25. IL-33- and IL-25-stimulated Regnase-1AA/AA ILC2s showed reduced cell proliferation and type 2 cytokine (IL-5, IL-9, and IL-13) production and increased cell death. In addition, Il2ra and Il1rl1, but not Il5, Il9, or Il13, mRNAs were destabilized in IL-33-stimulated Regnase-1AA/AA ILC2s. In vivo, Regnase-1AA/AA mice showed attenuated acute type 2 pulmonary inflammation induced by the instillation of IL-33, IL-25, or papain. Furthermore, the expulsion of Nippostrongylus brasiliensis was significantly delayed in Regnase-1AA/AA mice. These results demonstrate that IKK complex-mediated Regnase-1 degradation is essential for ILC2-mediated type 2 responses both in vitro and in vivo. Therefore, controlling Regnase-1 degradation is a potential therapeutic target for ILC2-contributed allergic disorders.

Interleukin-1/-33 Signaling Pathways as Therapeutic Targets for Endometriosis.

Endometriosis is an estrogen-dependent disease with symptoms of dysmenorrhea, chronic pain, and infertility that affects 6-10% of women of reproductive age. Medical or surgical therapy, such as administration of an anti-gonadotropin or ovarian cystectomy, provide effective pain relief. However, neither therapy can be used for patients wishing to become pregnant. Despite the high morbidity, the pathogenesis of endometriosis has not been well-elucidated. Several inflammatory cytokines are reported to participate in the onset of endometriosis. Here, we examined the role of interleukin (IL)-1/IL-33 signaling in the development of endometriosis using a mouse model of endometriosis. Endometriotic lesion volume was significantly reduced in Il33-/- and Il1r1-/- mice, and almost completely suppressed in Myd88-/- mice. Mice intraperitoneally administered with an antibody against IL-1 receptor 1 (IL-1R1) or IL-33 developed limited endometriotic lesions. Oral administration of an inhibitor against IL-1R-associated kinase 4 (IRAK4), a downstream signal molecule of MyD88, also suppressed lesion formation. Furthermore, even after the development of cystic lesions the IRAK4 inhibitor prevented the enlargement of lesions. These treatments all significantly reduced cellular proliferation, shown by decreased Ki-67 expression. These results reveal that IL-1/IL-1R1, IL-33/IL-33R and associated downstream signaling molecules are involved in the pathogenesis of endometriosis, and may provide novel therapeutic targets for endometriosis.

Human cystatin SN is an endogenous protease inhibitor that prevents allergic rhinitis.

BACKGROUND: Protease allergens disrupt epithelial barriers to exert their allergenicity. Cystatin SN (encoded by CST1) is an endogenous cysteine protease inhibitor upregulated in nasal epithelia in patients with allergic rhinitis (AR). OBJECTIVE: We sought to investigate the protective effect of human cystatin SN on AR symptoms using pollen-induced AR mouse models. METHODS: We performed an in vitro protease activity assay to evaluate the effect of recombinant human cystatin SN (rhCystatin SN) on Japanese cedar (JC) or ragweed proteases. A human nasal epithelial cell line, RPMI 2650, was used to examine tight junction (TJ) disruption in vitro. Mice were sensitized and nasally challenged with JC or ragweed pollens with or without rhCystatin SN to examine the effect of rhCystatin SN on AR symptoms and the epithelial barrier in vivo. Because mice lack CST1, we generated transgenic (Tg) mice expressing human CST1 under control of its genomic control region (hCST1-Tg mice) to examine the role of cystatin SN in physiologically expressed conditions. RESULTS: rhCystatin SN inhibited JC but not ragweed protease activities and prevented JC-induced but not ragweed-induced TJ disruption in vitro. Exogenous administration of rhCystatin SN ameliorated JC-induced but not ragweed-induced sneezing and nasal TJ disruption in vivo. Furthermore, hCST1-Tg mice showed decreased JC-induced but not ragweed-induced sneezing symptoms and nasal TJ disruption compared with wild-type mice. CONCLUSION: Human cystatin SN suppresses AR symptoms through inhibiting allergen protease activities and protecting the nasal TJ barrier in an allergen-specific manner. We propose that upregulation of nasal endogenous protease inhibitors, including cystatin SN, is a novel therapeutic strategy for protease allergen-induced AR.

Activation of group 2 innate lymphoid cells exacerbates and confers corticosteroid resistance to mouse nasal type 2 inflammation.

Both Th2 cells and group 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s) contribute to allergic diseases. However, their exact role and relationship in nasal allergic disorders are unclear. In this study, we investigated the cooperation of Th2 cells and ILC2s in a mouse model of nasal allergic disorder. To differentially activate Th2 cells and/or ILC2s in nasal mucosa, mice were intra-nasally administered ovalbumin (OVA) antigen, papain, an ILC2-activator, or both for 2 weeks. Epithelial thickness and number of eosinophils in the nasal mucosa were evaluated at 24 h after the final challenge. Intra-nasal administration of OVA and papain preferentially activated Th2 cells and ILC2s, respectively, in the nose. Both OVA and papain increased the nasal epithelial thickness and number of eosinophils, and their coadministration significantly enhanced the symptoms. Although T-/B-cell-deficient mice showed severely decreased nasal symptoms induced by OVA or OVA-plus-papain, the mice still showed slight papain-induced nasal symptoms. In ILC2-deficient mice, OVA-plus-papain-induced nasal symptoms were suppressed to the same level as OVA-alone. Similarly, IL-33- and ST2-deficient mice showed decreased OVA-plus-papain-induced nasal symptoms. IL-5 induced eosinophilia only, but IL-13 contributed to both nasal epithelial thickening and eosinophilia induced by OVA-plus-papain. Dexamethasone ameliorated OVA-alone-induced nasal epithelial thickening. However, OVA-plus-papain-induced nasal epithelial thickening was only partially controlled by dexamethasone. These results demonstrate that IL-33/ST2-pathway-mediated ILC2 activation exacerbated Th2-cell-induced nasal inflammation by producing IL-13. Although Th2-cell-alone-induced nasal inflammation was controlled by corticosteroid treatment, the activation of ILC2s conferred treatment resistance. Therefore, ILC2s and their activators could be therapeutic targets for treatment-refractory nasal allergic disorders.

Allergen endotoxins induce T-cell-dependent and non-IgE-mediated nasal hypersensitivity in mice.

BACKGROUND: Allergen-mediated cross-linking of IgE on mast cells/basophils is a well-recognized trigger for type 1 allergic diseases such as allergic rhinitis (AR). However, allergens may not be the sole trigger for AR, and several allergic-like reactions are induced by non-IgE-mediated mechanisms. OBJECTIVE: We sought to describe a novel non-IgE-mediated, endotoxin-triggered nasal type-1-hypersensitivity-like reaction in mice. METHODS: To investigate whether endotoxin affects sneezing responses, mice were intraperitoneally immunized with ovalbumin (OVA), then nasally challenged with endotoxin-free or endotoxin-containing OVA. To investigate the role of T cells and mechanisms of the endotoxin-induced response, mice were adoptively transferred with in vitro-differentiated OVA-specific TH2 cells, then nasally challenged with endotoxin-free or endotoxin-containing OVA. RESULTS: Endotoxin-containing, but not endotoxin-free, OVA elicited sneezing responses in mice independent from IgE-mediated signaling. OVA-specific TH2 cell adoptive transfer to mice demonstrated that local activation of antigen-specific TH2 cells was required for the response. The Toll-like receptor 4-myeloid differentiation factor 88 signaling pathway was indispensable for endotoxin-containing OVA-elicited rhinitis. In addition, LPS directly triggered sneezing responses in OVA-specific TH2-transferred and nasally endotoxin-free OVA-primed mice. Although antihistamines suppressed sneezing responses, mast-cell/basophil-depleted mice had normal sneezing responses to endotoxin-containing OVA. Clodronate treatment abrogated endotoxin-containing OVA-elicited rhinitis, suggesting the involvement of monocytes/macrophages in this response. CONCLUSIONS: Antigen-specific nasal activation of CD4+ T cells followed by endotoxin exposure induces mast cell/basophil-independent histamine release in the nose that elicits sneezing responses. Thus, environmental or nasal residential bacteria may exacerbate AR symptoms. In addition, this novel phenomenon might explain currently unknown mechanisms in allergic(-like) disorders.

Murine allergic rhinitis and nasal Th2 activation are mediated via TSLP- and IL-33-signaling pathways.

Thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP) and IL-33 are epithelium-derived proallergic cytokines that contribute to allergic diseases. Although the involvement of TSLP in allergic rhinitis (AR) is suggested, the exact role of TSLP in AR is poorly understood. Furthermore, the relative contribution of TSLP and IL-33 in nasal allergic responses has not been described. In this study, we examined the roles of TSLP and IL-33 in AR by analyzing acute and chronic AR models. Acute AR mice were intraperitoneally immunized with ragweed, then intranasally challenged with ragweed pollen for four consecutive days. Chronic AR mice were nasally administrated ragweed pollen on consecutive days for 3 weeks. In both models, TSLP receptor (TSLPR)-deficient mice showed defective sneezing responses and reduced serum ragweed-specific IgE levels compared with wild-type (WT) mice. Analyses of bone-marrow chimeric mice demonstrated that hematopoietic cells were responsible for defective sneezing in TSLPR-deficient mice. In addition, FcεRI(+)-cell-specific TSLPR-deficient mice showed partial but significant reduction in sneezing responses. Of note, Th2 activation and nasal eosinophilia were comparable between WT and TSLPR-deficient mice. ST2- and IL-33-deficient mice showed defective Th2 activation and nasal eosinophilia to acute, but not chronic, ragweed exposure. TSLPR and ST2 double-deficient mice showed defective Th2 activation and nasal eosinophilia even after chronic ragweed exposure. These results demonstrate that TSLPR signaling is critical for the early phase response of AR by controlling the IgE-mast-cell/basophil pathway. The IL-33/ST2 pathway is central to nasal Th2 activation during acute allergen exposure, but both TSLPR and ST2 contribute to Th2 responses in chronically allergen-exposed mice.

Proallergic cytokines and group 2 innate lymphoid cells in allergic nasal diseases.

Recent advances in our understanding of proallergic cytokines and group 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s) indicate their critical roles in type 2 immunity-mediated disorders. Proallergic cytokines, interleukin (IL)-25, IL-33, and thymic stromal lymphopoietin, are released from epithelial cells in inflamed tissues and drive type 2 inflammation by acting on innate and acquired immune systems. ILC2s are an innate immune population that responds to proallergic cytokines by producing type 2 cytokines. In line with allergic disorders in the lung, skin, and intestine, emerging evidence suggests the involvement of proallergic cytokines and ILC2s in allergic nasal diseases such as chronic rhinosinusitis with polyps (CRSwNP), allergic fungal rhinosinusitis, and allergic rhinitis (AR). In CRSwNP patients, both proallergic cytokine levels and ILC2s frequency are increased in the nasal mucosa. Increased proallergic cytokine levels correlate with poorer disease outcomes in CRSwNP. Levels of nasal proallergic cytokines are also elevated in AR patients. In addition, animal studies demonstrate that cytokines are essential for the development of AR. It is becoming clear that the proallergic cytokine/ILC2s axis participates in allergic diseases by multiple mechanisms dependent upon the inflammatory context. Thus, a thorough understanding of these cytokines and ILC2s including their tissue- and disease-specific roles is essential for targeting the pathways to achieve therapeutic applications.

Essential Function for the Nuclear Protein Akirin2 in B Cell Activation and Humoral Immune Responses.

Akirin2, an evolutionarily conserved nuclear protein, is an important factor regulating inflammatory gene transcription in mammalian innate immune cells by bridging the NF-κB and SWI/SNF complexes. Although Akirin is critical for Drosophila immune responses, which totally rely on innate immunity, the mammalian NF-κB system is critical not only for the innate but also for the acquired immune system. Therefore, we investigated the role of mouse Akirin2 in acquired immune cells by ablating Akirin2 function in B lymphocytes. B cell-specific Akirin2-deficient (Cd19(Cre/+)Akirin2(fl/fl)) mice showed profound decrease in the splenic follicular (FO) and peritoneal B-1, but not splenic marginal zone (MZ), B cell numbers. However, both Akirin2-deficient FO and MZ B cells showed severe proliferation defect and are prone to undergo apoptosis in response to TLR ligands, CD40, and BCR stimulation. Furthermore, B cell cycling was defective in the absence of Akirin2 owing to impaired expression of genes encoding cyclin D and c-Myc. Additionally, Brg1 recruitment to the Myc and Ccnd2 promoter was severely impaired in Akirin2-deficient B cells. Cd19(Cre/+)Akirin2(fl/fl) mice showed impaired in vivo immune responses to T-dependent and -independent Ags. Collectively, these results demonstrate that Akirin2 is critical for the mitogen-induced B cell cycle progression and humoral immune responses by controlling the SWI/SNF complex, further emphasizing the significant function of Akirin2 not only in the innate, but also in adaptive immune cells.

B cell-intrinsic MyD88 signaling is essential for IgE responses in lungs exposed to pollen allergens.

Allergen-specific IgE is linked to asthma pathogenesis, but the underlying mechanisms of IgE production in response to allergen exposure are poorly understood. In this article, we show that B cell-intrinsic MyD88 is essential for IgE/IgG1 production evoked by ragweed pollen instilled into lungs. MyD88-deficient mice showed defective IgE/IgG1 production and germinal center responses to lung instillation of ragweed pollen. However, MyD88 was dispensable for dendritic cell activation and Th2 cell development. B cell-specific deletion of MyD88 replicated the defective Ab production observed in MyD88-deficient mice. Although ragweed pollen contains TLR ligands, TLR2/4/9-deficient mice developed normal allergic responses to ragweed pollen. However, anti-IL-1R1 Ab-treated mice and IL-18-deficient mice showed decreased IgE/IgG1 production with normal Th2 development. Furthermore, B cell-specific MyD88-deficient mice showed reduced IgE/IgG1 production in response to lung instillation of OVA together with IL-1α, IL-1ß, or IL-18. Thus, pollen instillation into lungs induces IL-1α/ß and IL-18 production, which activates B cell-intrinsic MyD88 signaling to promote germinal center responses and IgE/IgG1 production.

Nasal sensitization with ragweed pollen induces local-allergic-rhinitis-like symptoms in mice.

Recently, the concept of local allergic rhinitis (LAR) was established, namely rhinitis symptoms with local IgE production and negative serum antigen-specific IgE. However, the natural course of LAR development and the disease pathogenesis is poorly understood. This study investigated the pathophysiology of mice with allergic rhinitis that initially sensitized with ragweed pollen through the nasal route. Mice were nasally administrated ragweed pollen over consecutive days without prior systemic immunization of the allergen. Serial nasal sensitization of ragweed pollen induced an allergen-specific increase in sneezing, eosinophilic infiltration, and the production of local IgE by day 7, but serum antigen-specific IgE was not detected. Th2 cells accumulated in nose and cervical lymph nodes as early as day 3. These symptoms are characteristic of human LAR. Continual nasal exposure of ragweed pollen for 3 weeks resulted in the onset of classical AR with systemic atopy and adversely affected lung inflammation when the allergen was instilled into the lung. Fcer1a(-/-) mice were defective in sneezing but developed normal eosinophilic infiltration. Contrary, Rag2(-/-) mice were defective in both sneezing and eosinophilic infiltration, suggesting that T cells play a central role in the pathogenesis of the disease. These observations demonstrate nasal allergen sensitization to non-atopic individuals can induce LAR. Because local Th2 cell accumulation is the first sign and Th2 cells have a central role in the disease, a T-cell-based approach may aid the diagnosis and treatment of LAR.

Akirin2 is critical for inducing inflammatory genes by bridging IκB-ζ and the SWI/SNF complex.

Transcription of inflammatory genes in innate immune cells is coordinately regulated by transcription factors, including NF-κB, and chromatin modifiers. However, it remains unclear how microbial sensing initiates chromatin remodeling. Here, we show that Akirin2, an evolutionarily conserved nuclear protein, bridges NF-κB and the chromatin remodeling SWI/SNF complex by interacting with BRG1-Associated Factor 60 (BAF60) proteins as well as IκB-ζ, which forms a complex with the NF-κB p50 subunit. These interactions are essential for Toll-like receptor-, RIG-I-, and Listeria-mediated expression of proinflammatory genes including Il6 and Il12b in macrophages. Consistently, effective clearance of Listeria infection required Akirin2. Furthermore, Akirin2 and IκB-ζ recruitment to the Il6 promoter depend upon the presence of IκB-ζ and Akirin2, respectively, for regulation of chromatin remodeling. BAF60 proteins were also essential for the induction of Il6 in response to LPS stimulation. Collectively, the IκB-ζ-Akirin2-BAF60 complex physically links the NF-κB and SWI/SNF complexes in innate immune cell activation. By recruiting SWI/SNF chromatin remodellers to IκB-ζ, transcriptional coactivator for NF-κB, the conserved nuclear protein Akirin2 stimulates pro-inflammatory gene promoters in mouse macrophages during innate immune responses to viral or bacterial infection.

Hypertrophy of lymphoid organs is a possible phenotypic characteristic of R420W mutation of the cardiac ryanodine receptor gene: a study using a knock-in mouse model.

Cardiac ryanodine receptor gene (RyR2) mutations sometimes result in sudden cardiac death due to fatal arrhythmias. N-terminal R420W mutation of RyR2 is known to show similar phenotypes to arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy and to cause juvenile sudden death. We previously reported two sudden death cases with the same R420W mutation. Interestingly, the cases showed hypertrophy of lymphoid organs such as the thymus and mesenteric lymph nodes. The present study examined whether R420W mutation of RYR2 causes hypertrophy of lymphoid organs by generating a mouse model carrying the mutation. Homozygous (RyR2(R420W/R420W)) mice showed significant increases in thymus and spleen weights but not in kidney, heart, and brain weights compared with wild-type mice. The mice also showed remarkable hypertrophy of mesenteric lymph nodes. Immunohistochemical study revealed that RyR2 protein was prominently expressed in epithelial cells of the thymic medulla in the thymus. These findings show that mice with R420W mutation of RyR2 exhibit hypertrophy of lymphoid organs. Sudden unexplained death cases with the mutation may display such findings at autopsy.

The role of basophils and proallergic cytokines, TSLP and IL-33, in cutaneously sensitized food allergy.

Cutaneous sensitization with a food antigen before its consumption elicits the development of food allergy. Here, we report the site- and stage-dependent roles of basophils and proallergic cytokines, thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP) and IL-33, in a mouse model of food allergy initially sensitized cutaneously with the food antigen. Mice were epicutaneously sensitized with the food antigen ovalbumin (OVA) followed by oral challenge with OVA. Epicutaneously sensitized mice produced OVA-specific IgE and developed IgE-dependent anaphylaxis after oral challenge. Basophil-depleted or TSLP-receptor-deficient mice did not produce OVA-specific IgE and were protected from oral challenge-induced anaphylaxis. IL-33-deficient mice produced normal levels of OVA-specific IgE. However, IL-33-deficient mice and mice treated with recombinant soluble IL-33 receptor were protected from anaphylaxis. Thus, basophils and TSLP have pivotal roles in Th2 development in the skin during the sensitization phase of food allergy. In contrast, while IL-33 is dispensable for promoting cutaneous antigen sensitization, the cytokine is essential for inducing IgE-dependent anaphylaxis in the gut.

Innate-type and acquired-type allergy regulated by IL-33.

We propose two types of allergic response: IgE-dependent and IgE-independent, and designate these as 'acquired-type allergy' and 'innate-type allergy', respectively. IL-33 stimulates both innate (basophils, mast cells, or group 2 innate lymphoid cells) and acquired (Th2 cells) allergy-related cells to induce and/or augment Th2 cytokine production, which leads to eosinophilic inflammation in vivo. Thus, IL-33 is an essential regulator for both 'innate-type allergy' and 'acquired-type allergy', and might be an attractive therapeutic target for allergic diseases.