Effects of feeding ground redberry juniper (Juniperus pinchotii) to gestating ewes on pre- and postpartum performance, serum metabolites and hormones, milk fatty acid composition, and progeny preweaning performance.

The objective of this research was to evaluate effects of replacing sorghum × Sudangrass hay with ground juniper in gestating ewe supplements on pre- and postpartum growth performance, serum metabolites and hormonal concentrations, milk fatty acid composition, and progeny preweaning performance. In a completely randomized design, commercial Rambouillet ewes (age = 3 to 5 yr; initial BW = 65.2 ± 1.6 kg) on a base diet of long-stem sorghum × Sudangrass hay were assigned to 1 of 4 dietary supplements in which ground juniper replaced 0% (CNTL), 33% (18JUN), 66% (36JUN), or 100% (54JUN) of the ground sorghum × Sudangrass hay in a pelleted supplement with ground juniper from d 38 ± 4 of gestation to 2 d postpartum. Treatment DM diet intake overall (g/kg BW) in ewes receiving no juniper was similar ( ≥ 0.38) to that of those receiving increasing concentrations of juniper. Changes in ewe BW and BCS were similar ( ≥ 0.24) in ewes throughout gestation. All serum metabolites and hormones were within normal clinical ranges; however, serum IGF-1 decreased linearly ( = 0.003), alanine increased (linear; = 0.003), and serum Na decreased (linear; = 0.049) as the percentage of juniper increased in the diet. Ewe milk fatty acid composition was similar ( > 0.05) for the majority of fatty acids across treatment groups, with the exception of arachidonic acid (C20:4n6) being greater ( < 0.02) in 54JUN vs. CNTL ewe milk. Lamb birth weights were similar ( = 0.13), whereas lamb ADG tended to differ (quadratic; = 0.06) from d 0 to 14, with 18JUN being the least. At weaning, BW tended ( = 0.09) to linearly decrease in lambs born to ewes consuming greater concentrations of juniper but were not different ( = 0.26) between CNTL and 18JUN, 36JUN, and 54JUN. Results indicated that feeding increasing levels of ground juniper in supplements did not negatively alter ewe performance or serum metabolites and hormones measured pre- and postpartum. Lamb birth weight and preweaning performance appeared unaffected by maternal consumption of ground juniper containing supplements. Results also provide novel information regarding the effects of plant secondary compound consumption throughout pregnancy on ewe and progeny performance and health.

Black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) and domestic horse (Equus caballus) hindgut microflora demonstrate similar fermentation responses to grape seed extract supplementation in vitro.

The domestic horse is used as a nutritional model for rhinoceros maintained under human care. The validity of this model for browsing rhinoceros has been questioned due to high prevalence of iron overload disorder (IOD) in captive black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis), which is associated with high morbidity and mortality. Iron chelators, such as tannins, are under investigation as dietary supplements to ameliorate or prevent IOD in prone species. Polyphenolic compounds variably affect microbial fermentation, so the first objective of this experiment was to evaluate the effects of grape seed extract (GSE; a concentrated source of condensed tannins; CT) on black rhinoceros hindgut fermentation. Equine nutrition knowledge is used to assess supplements for rhinoceros; therefore, the second objective was to evaluate the domestic horse model for black rhinoceros fermentation and compare fermentation responses to GSE using a continuous single-flow in vitro culture system. Two replicated continuous culture experiments were conducted using horse and black rhinoceros faeces as inoculum sources comparing four diets with increasing GSE inclusion (0.0%, 1.3%, 2.7% and 4.0% of diet dry matter). Diet and GSE polyphenolic compositions were determined, and sodium sulphite effect on neutral detergent fibre extraction of CT-containing forages was tested. Increasing GSE inclusion stimulated microbial growth and fermentation, and proportionally increased diet CT concentration and iron-binding capacity. Horse and black rhinoceros hindgut microflora nutrient digestibility and fermentation responses to GSE did not differ, and results supported equine fermentation as an adequate model for microbial fermentation in the black rhinoceros. Interpretation of these results is limited to hindgut fermentation and further research is needed to compare foregut digestibility and nutrient absorption between these two species. Supplementation of GSE in black rhinoceros diets up to 4% is unlikely to adversely affect hindgut nutrient digestibility or microbial viability and fermentation.

Technical Note: Predicting ruminal methane inhibition by condensed tannins using nonlinear exponential decay regression analysis.

Methane (CH) is a potent greenhouse gas that is normally produced by microbial fermentation in the rumen and released to the environment mainly during eructation. Prediction of ruminal CH production is important for ruminant nutrition, especially for the determination of ME intake to assess the amount of total GE available for metabolism by an animal. Equations have been developed to predict ruminal CH production based on dietary constituents, but none have considered condensed tannins (CT), which are known to impact CH production by ruminants. The objective was to develop an equation to predict ruminal CH, accounting for CT effects. Methane production data were acquired from 48-h in vitro fermentation of a diverse group of warm-season perennial forage legumes containing different concentrations of CT over the course of 3 yr ( = 113). The following nonlinear exponential decay regression equation was developed: CH4 = 113.6 × exp (-0.1751 x CT) - 2.18), [corrected] in which CH is expressed in grams per kilogram of fermentable organic matter and CT is in percentage of the DM. This equation predicted that CH production could be reduced by approximately 50% when CT is 3.9% DM. This equation is likely more accurate when screening CT-containing forages for their potential ability to mitigate in vitro CH production by ruminants when the CT concentration is greater than 3% DM. Therefore, despite the degree of variability in ruminal CH production, this equation could be used as a tool for screening CT-containing forages for their potential to inhibit ruminal CH. Future research should focus on the development of predictive equations when other potential reducers of ruminal CH are used in conjunction with CT.

Effects of Juniperus species and stage of maturity on nutritional, in vitro digestibility, and plant secondary compound characteristics.

Rising feed costs and recurring feed shortages necessitate the investigation into alternative and underutilized feed resources. Nutritional characteristics of species are either unknown or limited to leaves and ground material from small stems. Therefore, the objective was to quantify nutritional characteristics, 48-h true IVDMD (tIVDMD), microbial gas production, and secondary compound characteristics of entire woody plant material of 4 species-, , , and -at immature and mature stages of growth. Immature plants had greater CP concentrations and lower NDF concentrations ( < 0.001) than mature plants regardless of species. Mature plants also had greater ( < 0.001) concentrations of ADF compared with immature plants with the exception of . In general, immature , , and had greater ( < 0.02) tIVDMD and total 48-h and asymptotic gas production than mature plants. Immature and plants were more digested (tIVDMD; < 0.001) than immature and , but tIVDMD did not differ in mature plant material across species. Condensed tannins (CT) were greater ( < 0.001) in immature and than mature plants; differences in CT concentrations among immature species were also detected ( < 0.04). Volatile oil yields were similar across maturity and species with 1 exception: immature yielded more ( < 0.02) volatile oil than mature material. Volatile oil composition across species varied and contained a range of 65 to 70 terpene compounds. The dominant terpenes across species were generally greater ( < 0.05) in immature vs. mature plant material with the exception of . Labdane acids were negligible in , , and and greater in ( < 0.001). Ground material from mature juniper species, although inferior in nutritional quality compared with immature plants, is comparable to traditional low-quality roughage ingredients. Given that has been successfully fed in lamb feedlot diets, the similarities of , and suggest that all three species have potential to be effective roughage ingredients.

Effect of replacing alfalfa with panicled-tick clover or sericea lespedeza in corn-alfalfa-based substrates on in vitro ruminal methane production.

Methane emissions from ruminant livestock contribute to total anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions and reduce metabolizable energy intake by the animal. Condensed tannins (CT) are polyphenolic plant secondary compounds commonly produced by some perennial forage legumes that characteristically bind to protein, carbohydrates, and minerals. The degree to which CT may affect ruminant nutrition depends upon the concentration, structural composition, and biological activity of the CT. The objective of our experiment was to determine the effect of replacing alfalfa in a corn-alfalfa-based substrate with a legume containing CT on in vitro CH4 production and the dynamics of fermentation using an in vitro gas production technique. All fermented substrates contained 50% ground corn as the energy concentrate portion, whereas the forage portion (50%) of each diet was comprised of alfalfa (control) or some combination of alfalfa and sericea lespedeza (SL) or panicled-tick clover (PTC). Our treatments consisted of PTC or SL 15, 30, and 45, which corresponded with 15, 30, or 45% replacement of the diet (alfalfa component) with either PTC or SL. Substrates containing 45% PTC or SL reduced in vitro CH4 production. Treatments did not affect total gas production as compared with that of the control. Replacement of alfalfa with SL or PTC increased fermentable organic matter (FOM). The PTC treatment increased FOM by as much as 1.8% at the 45% replacement level, whereas FOM of SL 45 was increased by less than 1%. The replacement of alfalfa with PTC increased substrate nutritive value greater than replacement with SL. There were no correlations between any physicochemical constituent of the substrates and CH4 production. A combination of factors associated with the inclusion of PTC and SL contributed to the in vitro CH4 production, and CT in these forages was likely a major contributing factor. Further confirmation of these results on in situ or in vivo animal systems is required. If proven effective in an in vivo production scenario, replacement of commonly fed non-CT-containing legumes, such as alfalfa, with legumes containing CT might be a viable method to decrease the effect of animal agriculture on greenhouse gas production.

Effect of molecular weight and concentration of legume condensed tannins on in vitro larval migration inhibition of Haemonchus contortus.

The effect of molecular weight of condensed tannins (CT) from a variety of warm-season perennial legumes commonly consumed by sheep and goats on anthelmintic activity has not been previously explored. The objectives of this study were to determine if molecular weight of CT from warm-season perennial legumes could predict the biological activity of CT relative to anthelmintic activity against ivermectin resistant L3 stage Haemonchus contortus (HC) using a larval migration inhibition (LMI) assay. A second objective was to determine if CT from warm-season perennial legumes possess anthelmintic properties against L3 stage (HC). Lespedeza stuevei had the greatest concentration of total condensed tannin (TCT; 11.7%), whereas, with the exception of Arachis glabrata, a CT-free negative control, Leucaena retusa had the least TCT (3.3%). Weight-average molecular weight of CT ranged from 552 Da for L. stuevei to 1483 Da for Lespedeza cuneata. The treatments demonstrating the greatest percent LMI were L. retusa, L. stuevei and Acacia angustissima var. hirta (65.4%, 63.1% and 42.2%, respectively). The ivermectin treatment had the smallest percent LMI (12.5%) against ivermectin resistant L3 HC. There was a weak correlation (R(2)=0.34; P=0.05) between CT MW and percent LMI, suggesting that molecular weight of CT is a weak contributing factor to CT biological activity as it relates to LMI of L3 stage HC. L. stuevei, L. retusa and A. angustissima var. hirta STP5 warrant further evaluation of anthelmintic properties in vivo.

Microbial Decontamination and Weight of Carcass Beef as Affected by Automated Washing Pressure and Length of Time of Spray 1.

Carcasses were obtained from 56 heifers that were fed a corn-corn silage diet to determine the effects of automated washing water spray pressures (SP) of 2412 kilopascal (kPa) or 4134 kPa and chain speeds (CS) of 3.9, 5.9 or 7.9 m/min on microflora and weight changes of carcass beef. Carcass beef sides were weighed before washing, 5 min after washing and 20 h after washing and storage at 0°C. Enterobacteriaceae and aerobic counts of forequarters and hindquarters were determined before and 20 h after washing. Carcass sides shrank 1.52 kg after 20 h of storage. This shrinkage was similar among all treatment groups. Washing reduced Enterobacteriaceae counts 1.57 log10 colony forming units (CFU)/200 cm2 and counts of aerobic bacteria 0.87 log10 CFU/200 cm2. All combinations of SP and CS were similar in effectiveness of reducing Enterobacteriaceae counts. However, the low SP tended (P<0.102) to be more effective in reducing aerobic counts. Forequarters possessed greater (P<0.051) aerobic counts (5.44 vs 5.29 log10 CFU/200 cm2) than hindquarters, but washing eliminated this differential. Automated carcass washing reduced bacterial counts of carcass beef, but within treatments applied, SP and CS had no effect on variation in carcass weight or variation in reduction of microflora. Research indicated that automated carcass washing was a useful procedure for reducing bacterial counts on carcass beef without affecting carcass weights.

Counts of Six Types of Bacteria on Lamb Carcasses Dipped or Sprayed with Acetic Acid at 25° or 55°C and Stored Vacuum Packaged at 0°C.

This study evaluates the sanitizing effectiveness of applying, by spraying or dipping, 1.5 or 3.0% acetic acid at either 25°C or 55°C to freshly slaughtered lamb carcasses. After vacuum packaging and during extended storage at 0°C, samples were examined for microbial populations. Each treatment reduced counts significantly compared with counts of untreated controls. Numbers of gram negative bacteria and lactobacilli were affected significantly by the temperature of acid solutions. Other variables caused insignificant differences in the amounts that counts were reduced by sanitization. Overall, dipping in 3% acetic acid at 55°C was the most effective treatment.

Evaluation of Swab and Tissue Excision Methods for Recovering Microorganisms from Washed and Sanitized Beef Carcasses 1, 2.

Samples taken from dressed beef carcasses by swabbing surfaces or excising tissues were plated to produce counts of aerobic bacteria, Enterobacteriaceae , and Escherichia coli . Counts were compared to determine efficiencies of the two sampling methods. Excised tissues produced much higher counts than did swabs, especially when washed and sanitized carcasses were sampled. Percentages recovered by swabbing appeared to be influenced by characteristics of the area sampled on the carcass. Numbers of Enterobacteriaceae and E. coli recovered by swabbing washed and sanitized carcasses were usually too few to be countable, whereas excision usually produced countable plates. The excision sampling method permitted differentiation among treatment effects of washing and sanitizing.

A Simple Qualitative Method for Detecting Cleanliness of Food Contact Surfaces.

Two tests were developed for detecting protein on food contact surfaces. Wetted swabs rubbed over surfaces on which 3 µg of protein was dried became visibly blue when reacted with Folin's test reagents. Wetted Chemstrips, available to test for protein in urine, became visibly colored on rubbing on surfaces with 0.25 µg of protein. Sensitivity of the tests varied with type of protein.

Effects of Exercise, Electrical Stimulation and Vacuum Packaging on Bacterial Counts and Tenderness of Fresh Beef Primal Cuts.

Two wholesale cuts, the silverside ( M biceps femoris ) and bolo, (outside round and clod) from 8 steers were used in this study. Four steers were artificially stressed and the right side of all carcasses was electrically stimulated. Primals were cut into 3 equal portions after 72 h post slaughter, chilling at approximately 4°C, and were vacuum packaged. No microbial differences (P>0.05) were found between primals within treatments. Primals from stressed carcasses had higher pH values (P<0.01) and psychrotrophic, lactobacillus, anaerobic and aerobic counts than from nonstressed carcasses. Lactobacilli did not dominate the microbial population. Electrical stimulation (ES) and the cuts used had an influence on shear force values (P<0.05). ES cuts were significantly more tender than controls. Results suggest that animals should be well rested before slaughter.

Effect of Aerobic Storage before Vacuum Packaging on the pH, Color and Bacterial Flora of Beef 1.

Beef was stored aerobically for 2 or 6 d at 1 ± 1°C before vacuum packaging. Total numbers of aerobic bacteria, Pseudomonas spp., Brochothrix thermosphacta and lactic acid bacteria were determined by selectively plating stored samples. Meat color was evaluated with a color difference meter and a color panel. Aerobic plate counts, numbers of pseudomonads and B. thermosphacta , and pH each were higher in samples held aerobically for 6 d compared with those held aerobically for 2 d. The major effect of delayed vacuum packaging was to slow the growth of lactic acid bacteria and minimize the number of pseudomonads. The variation among treatments was similar in Pseudomonas spp. population for 21 d and in pH for 7 d, and there was no significant effect of packaging treatment in color. Results indicate that the initial treatment variations were lost as storage time progressed.

Effects of Washing and Sanitizing on the Bacterial Flora of Vacuum-Packaged Pork Loins.

The bacteriology of boneless pork loins that were either spray-washed (SW) with water, spray-washed and sanitized with a 200 ppm sodium hypochlorite solution (SSCL) or spray-washed with water and sanitized with a 2% acetic acid solution (SSAA) before being vacuum packaged and stored for up to 28 d at 4.0°C was studied. Aerobic, anaerobic and lactobacilli bacterial counts immediately after treatment and at 14, 21 and 28 d were significantly lower on loins receiving the SSAA treatment than loins receiving the SW and SSCL treatment. SSCL loins had lower bacterial counts than untreated controls during 14 d of storage. SW loins had significantly lower bacterial counts than control loins only immediately after treatment. The SSAA treatment resulted in some discoloration. If this discoloration can be prevented, this treatment should be useful in extending the storage life of fresh pork.

Dietary "meats" and serum lipids.

The mean values for serum total cholesterol for 47 males, aged 32 to 62 yr who, over a 10 1/2 month study ate, within a self-selected diet, beef as the only meat for 3 months, poultry and fish for 3 months, and pork for 3 months showed no statistically significant difference, whereas 17 of 29 females of the same age who participated in the same study had borderline statistically significant differences in mean values (p less than 0.055). When data from all subjects were considered together, no statistically significant changes in mean serum total cholesterol or serum triglycerides were noted, but there were significant changes in mean high-density lipoprotein cholesterol values, both upward and downward. The important results of this study are documentary to the lack of influence of "meat" and its fat on effecting a significant change in serum total cholesterol within a self-selected diet.

Effect of Nozzle Configuration and Size on Water Absorbed by Meat During Cleaning 1, 2.

Our previous studies suggested the need to study absorption and evaporation of water from meat during cleaning with water sprays. This article describes the effects of type of meat surface, line pressure, size and configuration of nozzle, and speed of meat travel past the nozzle on water absorption and percent shrinkage after 24 h. Cut meat surfaces had a higher percent gain and lower percent shrinkage than did uncut surfaces. Pressure had no significant effect on percent shrinkage. Solid stream nozzles caused a higher percent gain and a lower percent shrinkage than did flat fan nozzles. As the size of the nozzle was increased, the percent gain increased and the percent shrinkage decreased. The slowest speed of meat travel past the nozzles (5 cm/s) caused the highest percent gain in weight.

Evaluation of a Unique Chamber for a Beef Carcass Cleaning Unit 1, 2.

Our objective was to develop basic design criteria for use in fabricating a functional chamber for a red meat carcass cleaning unit. Emphasis was placed on eliminating the doors. A model carcass cleaning chamber was constructed to test effects of selected design parameters on direction and velocity of airflow. Based on data from the tests using the model, a full-scale chamber with no doors was designed, fabricated, and installed in a commercial packing plant for testing. The air moves into the chamber at both the entrance and the exit. This movement of air into the chamber prevents water droplets entrained in the air from escaping into the slaughtering area and causing condensation on the walls and roof.

Serum lipids in humans fed diets containing beef or fish and poultry.

One half of a group of 129 men and women (74 men and 55 women), in a cross-over design at, within a self-selected diet, one egg and at least 5 oz of beef daily for 3 months while the other half at one egg and at least 5 oz of poultry and fish daily. Then they reversed their diets for 3 months. Blood samples were drawn by venipuncture before the study started and at the end of the 3 and 6 months, for analyses of serum total cholesterol, triglycerides, and high density lipoprotein cholesterol. No statistically significant changes were found in serum lipids in men. In women serum triglycerides but not other serum lipids were significantly higher when poultry and fish had been ingested.

In-Plant Evaluation of a Prototype Carcass Cleaning and Sanitizing Unit 1, 2.

An experimental cleaning and sanitizing unit was used in cleaning and sanitizing (3.0% acetic acid) beef carcasses. It cleaned the carcasses sufficiently that they would pass the Acceptable Quality Level test of the Food Safety and Quality Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. The sanitizing unit reduced the microbial population on the surface of the meat by an initial 1.49 logs; the difference between washed and washed and sanitized carcasses after 1 week (168 h) was 0.92 log. A slight gray cast developed within the top 1 mm of fat almost immediately after the acid was applied. Sensory panel members detected no adverse effects on the lean portion of steaks from sanitized carcasses. However, they detected a slight off-flavor in treated fat.

Microbial Growth on Plate Beef During Extended Storage After Washing and Sanitizing.

Plate beef was washed and/or sanitized with cold water, hot water, steam, sodium hypochlorite, or acetic acid before being stored for up to 28 days at 3.3 C and 90% relative humidity. Microbial counts initially and at regular intervals thereafter disclosed that, compared with untreated controls, time to reach counts of 108 bacteria per cm2 were (a) 1 day less with steam- or water-treated samples, (b) 2 to 3 days more with hypochlorite-treated samples, (c) 5 days more with hot-water-treated samples, and (d) 16 to 17 days more with acetic acid-treated samples. Re-sanitization with acetic acid extended time to reach equivalent counts by 7 additional days.

Combined and Individual Effects of Washing and Sanitizing on Bacterial Counts of Meat - A Model System 1, 2.

Strips of plate meat were sprayed with acetic acid, sodium hypochlorite, or tap water after they were washed with 0, 12.7, or 25.4 liters of tap water/min. Washing before sanitizing lowered bacteria counts significantly only when the higher volume of water, 1.4 ml/cm2, was applied, and this difference existed for samples taken immediately but not 48 h after treatment. Reductions in counts exceeded 99.9% when samples washed with 25.4 liters/min (1.4 ml/cm2) were sanitized with 3% acetic acid. This sanitizer was sprayed at the rate of 6.8 liters/min (1.9 ml/cm2) at a pressure of 14.0 kg/cm2 from a distance of 40 cm as the meat moved at 2 cm/sec through the spray. Under comparable conditions of application, both sodium hypochlorite (200 to 250 mg/liter) and tap water reduced counts by about 90%. Acetic acid had a much greater residual effect on numbers of viable bacteria than did hypochlorite. No effect of air drying was observed.