Intra-neighborhood associations between residential greenness and blood pressure.

INTRODUCTION: Previous investigations have reported that individuals living in greener neighborhoods have better cardiovascular health. It is unclear whether the effects reported at large geographic scales persist when examined at an intra-neighborhood level. The effects of greenness have not been thoroughly examined using high-resolution metrics of greenness exposure, and how they vary with spatial scales of assessment or participant characteristics. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional assessment of associations between blood pressure and multiple high-resolution measures of residential area greenness in spatially concentrated HEAL Study cohort of the Green Heart Project. We employed generalized linear models, accounting for individual-level covariates, to examine associations between different high-resolution measures of greenness and blood pressure among 667 participants in a 4 sq. mile contiguous neighborhood area in Louisville, KY. RESULTS: In adjusted models, we observed significant inverse associations between residential greenness, measured by leaf area index (LAI), and systolic blood pressure (SBP) within 150-250 m and 500 m of homes, but not for Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) or grass cover. Weaker associations were also found with diastolic blood pressure (DBP). Significant positive associations were observed between LAI and SBP among participants who reported being female, White, without obesity, non-exercisers, non-smokers, younger age, of lower income, and who had high nearby roadway traffic. We found few significant associations between grass cover and SBP, but an inverse association in those with obesity, but positive associations for those without obesity. CONCLUSIONS: We found that leaf surface area of trees around participants home is strongly associated with lower blood pressure, with little association with grass cover. These effects varied with participant characteristics and spatial scales. More research is needed to test causative links between greenspace types and cardiovascular health and to develop population-, typology-, and place-based evidence to inform greening interventions.

Associations between violent crime inside and outside, air temperature, urban heat island magnitude and urban green space.

There are more incidents of violence in summer and on hot days, a trend likely to be exacerbated by climate change. Urban areas experience additional temperature modulation due to the urban form, however, to date, no studies have considered the effect of the urban heat island (UHI) or green space with respect to the temperature-violence relationship. This study modelled the relationship between the number of daily violent crime incidents that occurred inside or outside between July 2013 and June 2018, and the average surface UHI or percentage greencover (including grasses, shrubs and trees) within each local government area in Greater Sydney, Australia. Panelised negative binomial time series regression models indicated that the violent crime rate was associated with higher surface UHI for crimes committed outside (p = 0.006) but not inside (p = 0.072). Greater percentage of all vegetation was associated with significantly lower rates of violent crime committed outside (p = 0.011) but was not associated with violent crimes committed inside (p = 0.430). More socio-economic disadvantage was associated with higher rates of violent crime committed inside (p = 0.002) but not outside (p = 0.145). Greater temperature was non-linearly associated with higher rates of violent crime committed both inside and outside (p < 0.001). The findings of this study are important because both violence and heat exposure are critical health issues and will be stressed by urbanisation and climate change. The expansion of green space and/or reduction in UHI may mitigate these effects.

Greenness and equity: Complex connections between intra-neighborhood contexts and residential tree planting implementation.

Associations between neighborhood greenness and socioeconomic status (SES) are established, yet intra-neighborhood context and SES-related barriers to tree planting remain unclear. Large-scale tree planting implementation efforts are increasingly common and can improve human health, strengthen climate adaptation, and ameliorate environmental inequities. Yet, these efforts may be ineffective without in-depth understanding of local SES inequities and barriers to residential planting. We recruited 636 residents within and surrounding the Oakdale Neighborhood of Louisville, Kentucky, USA, and evaluated associations of individual and neighborhood-level sociodemographic indicators with greenness levels at multiple scales. We offered no-cost residential tree planting and maintenance to residents within a subsection of the neighborhood and examined associations of these sociodemographic indicators plus baseline greenness levels with tree planting adoption among 215 eligible participants. We observed positive associations of income with Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and leaf area index (LAI) within all radii around homes, and within yards of residents, that varied in strength. There were stronger associations of income with NDVI in front yards but LAI in back yards. Among Participants of Color, associations between income and NDVI were stronger than with Whites and exhibited no association with LAI. Tree planting uptake was not associated with income, education, race, nor employment status, but was positively associated with lot size, home value, lower population density, and area greenness. Our findings reveal significant complexity of intra-neighborhood associations between SES and greenness that could help shape future research and equitable greening implementation. Results show that previously documented links between SES and greenspace at large scales extend to residents' yards, highlighting opportunities to redress greenness inequities on private property. Our analysis found that uptake of no-cost residential planting and maintenance was nearly equal across SES groups but did not redress greenness inequity. To inform equitable greening, further research is needed to evaluate culture, norms, perceptions, and values affecting tree planting acceptance among low-SES residents.

Experiences of gardening during the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Gardening has the potential to improve health and wellbeing, especially during crises. Using an international survey of gardeners (n = 3743), this study aimed to understand everyday gardening experiences, perspectives and attitudes during early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020. Our qualitative reflexive thematic and sentiment analyses show that during the first months of the COVID-19 pandemic, gardening seemed to create a safe and positive space where people could socially connect, learn and be creative. Participants had more time to garden during the pandemic, which led to enhanced connections with family members and neighbours, and the ability to spend time in a safe outdoor environment. More time gardening allowed for innovative and new gardening practices that provided enjoyment for many participants. However, our research also highlighted barriers to gardening (e.g. lack of access to garden spaces and materials). Our results illustrate the multiple benefits of gardening apparent during COVID-19 through a lens of the social-ecological model of health.

Meeting sustainable development goals via robotics and autonomous systems.

Robotics and autonomous systems are reshaping the world, changing healthcare, food production and biodiversity management. While they will play a fundamental role in delivering the UN Sustainable Development Goals, associated opportunities and threats are yet to be considered systematically. We report on a horizon scan evaluating robotics and autonomous systems impact on all Sustainable Development Goals, involving 102 experts from around the world. Robotics and autonomous systems are likely to transform how the Sustainable Development Goals are achieved, through replacing and supporting human activities, fostering innovation, enhancing remote access and improving monitoring. Emerging threats relate to reinforcing inequalities, exacerbating environmental change, diverting resources from tried-and-tested solutions and reducing freedom and privacy through inadequate governance. Although predicting future impacts of robotics and autonomous systems on the Sustainable Development Goals is difficult, thoroughly examining technological developments early is essential to prevent unintended detrimental consequences. Additionally, robotics and autonomous systems should be considered explicitly when developing future iterations of the Sustainable Development Goals to avoid reversing progress or exacerbating inequalities.

A transformative mission for prioritising nature in Australian cities.

Australia is experiencing mounting pressures related to processes of urbanisation, biodiversity loss and climate change felt at large in cities. At the same time, it is cities that can take the leading role in pioneering approaches and solutions to respond to those coupling emergencies. In this perspective piece we respond to the following question: What are the required transformations for prioritising, valuing, maintaining and embracing nature in cities in Australia? We adopt the mission framework as an organising framework to present proposed pathways to transform Australian cities as nature-positive places of the future. We propose three interconnected pathways as starting actions to steer urban planning, policy and governance in Australian cities: First, cities need to establish evidence-based planning for nature in cities and mainstream new planning tools that safeguard and foreground urban nature. Second, collaborative planning needs to become a standard practice in cities and inclusive governance for nature in cities needs to prioritise Aboriginal knowledge systems and practices as well as look beyond what local governments can do. Third, for progressing to nature-positive cities, it is paramount to empower communities to innovate with nature across Australian cities. Whilst we focus on Australian cities, the lessons and pathways are broadly applicably globally and can inspire science-policy debates for the post COP15 biodiversity and COP26 climate change implementation processes.

Gardening can relieve human stress and boost nature connection during the COVID-19 pandemic.

The COVID-19 pandemic has severely disrupted social life. Gardens and yards have seemingly risen as a lifeline during the pandemic. Here, we investigated the relationship between people and gardening during the COVID-19 pandemic and what factors influenced the ability of people to garden. We examined survey responses (n = 3,743) from gardeners who reported how the pandemic had affected personal motivations to garden and their use of their gardens, alongside pandemic-related challenges, such as food access during the first wave of COVID-19 (May-Aug 2020). The results show that for the respondents, gardening was overwhelmingly important for nature connection, individual stress release, outdoor physical activity and food provision. The importance of food provision and economic security were also important for those facing greater hardships from the pandemic. While the literature on gardening has long shown the multiple benefits of gardening, we report on these benefits during a global pandemic. More research is needed to capture variations in public sentiment and practice - including those who do little gardening, have less access to land, and reside in low-income communities particularly in the global south. Nevertheless, we argue that gardening can be a public health strategy, readily accessible to boost societal resilience to disturbances.

Extreme heat increases stomatal conductance and drought-induced mortality risk in vulnerable plant species.

Tree mortality during global-change-type drought is usually attributed to xylem dysfunction, but as climate change increases the frequency of extreme heat events, it is necessary to better understand the interactive role of heat stress. We hypothesized that some drought-stressed plants paradoxically open stomata in heatwaves to prevent leaves from critically overheating. We experimentally imposed heat (>40°C) and drought stress onto 20 broadleaf evergreen tree/shrub species in a glasshouse study. Most well-watered plants avoided lethal overheating, but drought exacerbated thermal damage during heatwaves. Thermal safety margins (TSM) quantifying the difference between leaf surface temperature and leaf critical temperature, where photosynthesis is disrupted, identified species vulnerability to heatwaves. Several mechanisms contributed to high heat tolerance and avoidance of damaging leaf temperatures-small leaf size, low leaf osmotic potential, high leaf mass per area (i.e., thick, dense leaves), high transpirational capacity, and access to water. Water-stressed plants had smaller TSM, greater crown dieback, and a fundamentally different stomatal heatwave response relative to well-watered plants. On average, well-watered plants closed stomata and decreased stomatal conductance (gs ) during the heatwave, but droughted plants did not. Plant species with low gs , either due to isohydric stomatal behavior under water deficit or inherently low transpirational capacity, opened stomata and increased gs under high temperatures. The current paradigm maintains that stomata close before hydraulic thresholds are surpassed, but our results suggest that isohydric species may dramatically increase gs (over sixfold increases) even past their leaf turgor loss point. By actively increasing water loss at high temperatures, plants can be driven toward mortality thresholds more rapidly than has been previously recognized. The inclusion of TSM and responses to heat stress could improve our ability to predict the vulnerability of different tree species to future droughts.

Where birds felt louder: The garden as a refuge during COVID-19.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, many countries experienced something of a boom in interest in gardening. Gardens have long been considered as refuges into which we retreat to escape various struggles and challenges. In this study we examine the characteristics and functions of the garden as a refuge during the period of increased garden interest associated with the COVID-19 pandemic. Analysis of qualitative results about garden experiences from 3,743 survey respondents revealed intertwining garden and emotional geographies. Utilising non-representational and therapeutic landscape theories, we found multifarious and heightened experiences of non-material aspects of gardens; that is, the sensory and emotional aspects. People experienced, for example, a sense of joy, beauty, and reassurance, a greater attunement to the natural world and an increased sense of nature connection than they had at other times: birds felt louder. These heightened sensory and emotional experiences had therapeutic benefits, across age and geographical spectrums, during these difficult times. This research improves our understandings of the positive potential of non-material aspects of gardens in the creation of therapeutic landscapes in and beyond COVID-19.

Integrating solutions to adapt cities for climate change.

Record climate extremes are reducing urban liveability, compounding inequality, and threatening infrastructure. Adaptation measures that integrate technological, nature-based, and social solutions can provide multiple co-benefits to address complex socioecological issues in cities while increasing resilience to potential impacts. However, there remain many challenges to developing and implementing integrated solutions. In this Viewpoint, we consider the value of integrating across the three solution sets, the challenges and potential enablers for integrating solution sets, and present examples of challenges and adopted solutions in three cities with different urban contexts and climates (Freiburg, Germany; Durban, South Africa; and Singapore). We conclude with a discussion of research directions and provide a road map to identify the actions that enable successful implementation of integrated climate solutions. We highlight the need for more systematic research that targets enabling environments for integration; achieving integrated solutions in different contexts to avoid maladaptation; simultaneously improving liveability, sustainability, and equality; and replicating via transfer and scale-up of local solutions. Cities in systematically disadvantaged countries (sometimes referred to as the Global South) are central to future urban development and must be prioritised. Helping decision makers and communities understand the potential opportunities associated with integrated solutions for climate change will encourage urgent and deliberate strides towards adapting cities to the dynamic climate reality.

A global horizon scan of the future impacts of robotics and autonomous systems on urban ecosystems.

Technology is transforming societies worldwide. A major innovation is the emergence of robotics and autonomous systems (RAS), which have the potential to revolutionize cities for both people and nature. Nonetheless, the opportunities and challenges associated with RAS for urban ecosystems have yet to be considered systematically. Here, we report the findings of an online horizon scan involving 170 expert participants from 35 countries. We conclude that RAS are likely to transform land use, transport systems and human-nature interactions. The prioritized opportunities were primarily centred on the deployment of RAS for the monitoring and management of biodiversity and ecosystems. Fewer challenges were prioritized. Those that were emphasized concerns surrounding waste from unrecovered RAS, and the quality and interpretation of RAS-collected data. Although the future impacts of RAS for urban ecosystems are difficult to predict, examining potentially important developments early is essential if we are to avoid detrimental consequences but fully realize the benefits.

Plant biodiversity in the face of global change.

Le Roux et al. suggest that documented increases in local plant richness in response to climate change should consider the nature of 'new' species. They find that species responsible for increases in richness in areas that have experienced significant disturbance and climate change are often invasive and/or weedy species.

Author Correction: A global database for metacommunity ecology, integrating species, traits, environment and space.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

A global database for metacommunity ecology, integrating species, traits, environment and space.

The use of functional information in the form of species traits plays an important role in explaining biodiversity patterns and responses to environmental changes. Although relationships between species composition, their traits, and the environment have been extensively studied on a case-by-case basis, results are variable, and it remains unclear how generalizable these relationships are across ecosystems, taxa and spatial scales. To address this gap, we collated 80 datasets from trait-based studies into a global database for metaCommunity Ecology: Species, Traits, Environment and Space; "CESTES". Each dataset includes four matrices: species community abundances or presences/absences across multiple sites, species trait information, environmental variables and spatial coordinates of the sampling sites. The CESTES database is a live database: it will be maintained and expanded in the future as new datasets become available. By its harmonized structure, and the diversity of ecosystem types, taxonomic groups, and spatial scales it covers, the CESTES database provides an important opportunity for synthetic trait-based research in community ecology.

Substantial declines in urban tree habitat predicted under climate change.

Globally, local governments are increasing investment in urban greening projects. However, there is little consideration of whether the species being planted will be resilient to climate change. We assessed the distribution of climatically suitable habitat, now and in the future, for 176 tree species native to Australia, commonly planted across Australia's Significant Urban Areas (SUAs) and currently grown by commercial nurseries. Species' occurrence records were obtained from inventories and herbaria, globally and across Australia, and combined with baseline climate data (WorldClim, 1960-1990) and six climate scenarios for 2030 and 2070 using climatic suitability models (CSMs). CSMs for each species were calibrated and projected onto baseline and future scenarios. We calculated changes in the size of climatically suitable habitat for each species across each SUA, and identified urban areas that are likely to have suitable climate for either fewer or more of our study species under future climate. By 2070, climatically suitable habitat in SUAs is predicted to decline for 73% of species assessed. For 18% of these species, climatically suitable area is predicted to be more than halved, relative to their baseline extent. Generally, for urban areas in cooler regions, climatically suitable habitat is predicted to increase. By contrast, for urban areas in warmer regions, a greater proportion of tree species may lose climatically suitable habitat. Our results highlight changing patterns of urban climatic space for commonly planted species, suggesting that local governments and the horticultural industry should take a proactive approach to identify new climate-ready species for urban plantings.

A Simple Method for Simulating Drought Effects on Plants.

Drought is expected to increase in frequency and severity in many regions in the future, so it is important to improve our understanding of how drought affects plant functional traits and ecological interactions. Imposing experimental water deficits is key to gaining this understanding, but has been hindered by logistic difficulties in maintaining consistently low water availability for plants. Here, we describe a simple method for applying soil water deficits to potted plants in glasshouse experiments. We modified an existing method (the "Snow and Tingey system") in order to apply a gradual, moderate water deficit to 50 plant species of different life forms (grasses, vines, shrubs, trees). The method requires less maintenance and manual handling compared to other water deficit methods, so it can be used for extended periods of time and is relatively inexpensive to implement. With only a few modifications, it is possible to easily establish and maintain soil water deficits of differing intensity and duration, as well as to incorporate interacting stress factors. We tested this method by measuring physiological responses to an applied water deficit in a subset of 11 tree/shrub species with a wide range of drought tolerances and water-use strategies. For this subgroup of species, stomatal conductance was 2-17 times lower in droughted plants than controls, although only half of the species (5 out of 11) experienced midday leaf water potentials that exceeded their turgor loss (i.e., wilting) point. Leaf temperatures were up to 8°C higher in droughted plants than controls, indicating that droughted plants are at greater risk of thermal damage, relative to unstressed plants. The largest leaf temperature differences (between droughted and well-watered plants) were in species with high rates of water loss. Rapid osmotic adjustment was observed in leaves of five species when drought stress was combined with an experimental heatwave. These results highlight the potential value of further ecological and physiological experiments utilizing this simple water deficit method to study plant responses to drought stress.

The Provision of Urban Ecosystem Services Throughout the Private-Social-Public Domain: A Conceptual Framework.

As cities are largely private systems, recent investigations have assessed the provision of ecosystem services from the private realm. However, these assessments are largely based on the concept of ownership and fail to capture the complexity of service provision mediated by interactions between people and ecological structures. In fact, people interact with ecological structures in their role of land tenants and stewards, further modulating the provision of ecosystem services. We devise a theoretical framework based on the concepts of ownership, tenancy, and stewardship, in which people, as mediators of ecosystem services, regulate the provision of services throughout the private-social-public domain. We survey relevant literature describing these dimensions and propose a comprehensive framework focused on the private-social-public domain. Our framework can advance ecosystem service research and enhance the provision of ecosystems services. The inclusion of people's individual, social and public roles in the mediation of ecosystem services could improve how benefits are planned for, prioritized, and optimized across cities.

Climate differentiates forest structure across a residential macrosystem.

The extent of urban ecological homogenization depends on how humans build, inhabit, and manage cities. Morphological and socio-economic facets of neighborhoods can drive the homogenization of urban forest cover, thus affecting ecological and hydrological processes, and ecosystem services. Recent evidence, however, suggests that the same biophysical drivers differentiating composition and structure of natural forests can further counteract the homogenization of urban forests. We hypothesize that climate can differentiate forest structure across residential macrosystems at regional-to-continental spatial scales. To test this hypothesis, forest structure (tree and shrub cover and volume) was measured using LiDAR data and multispectral imagery across a residential macrosystem composed 1.4 million residential parcels contained in 9 cities and 1503 neighborhoods. Cities were selected along an evapotranspiration (ET) gradient in the conterminous United States, ranging from the colder continental climate of Fargo, North Dakota (ET = 464.43 mm) to the hotter subtropical climate of Tallahassee, Florida (ET = 1000.47 mm). The relative effects of climate, urban morphology, and socio-economic variables on residential forest structure were assessed by using generalized linear models. Climate differentiated forest structure of the residential macrosystem as hypothesized. Average forest cover doubled along the ET gradient (0.39-0.78 m2 m-2), whereas average forest volume had a threefold increase (2.50-8.12 m3 m-2). Forest volume across neighborhoods increased exponentially with forest cover. Urban morphology had a greater effect in homogenizing forest structure on residential parcels compared to socio-economics. Climate and urban morphology variables best predicted residential forest structure, whereas socio-economic variables had the lowest predictive power. Results indicate that climate can differentiate forest structure across residential macrosystems and may counteract the homogenizing effects of urban morphology and socio-economic drivers at city-wide scales. This resonates with recent empirical work suggesting the existence of complex multi-scalar mechanisms that regulate ecological homogenization and ecosystem convergence among cities. The study initiates high-resolution assessments of forest structure across entire urban macrosystems and breaks new ground for research on the ecological and hydrological significance of urban vegetation at subcontinental scale.