Excitability and Synaptic Transmission in the Enteric Nervous System: Does Diet Play a Role?

Changes in diet are a challenge to the gastrointestinal tract which needs to alter its processing mechanisms to continue to process nutrients and maintain health. In particular, the enteric nervous system (ENS) needs to adapt its motor and secretory programs to deal with changes in nutrient type and load in order to optimise nutrient absorption.The nerve circuits in the gut are complex, and the numbers and types of neurons make recordings of specific cell types difficult, time-consuming, and prone to sampling errors. Nonetheless, traditional research methods like intracellular electrophysiological approaches have provided the basis for our understanding of the ENS circuitry. In particular, animal models of intestinal inflammation have shown us that we can document changes to neuronal excitability and synaptic transmission.Recent studies examining diet-induced changes to ENS programming have opted to use fast imaging techniques to reveal changes in neuron function. Advances in imaging techniques using voltage- or calcium-sensitive dyes to record neuronal activity promise to overcome many limitations inherent to electrophysiological approaches. Imaging techniques allow access to a wide range of ENS phenotypes and to the changes they undergo during dietary challenges. These sorts of studies have shown that dietary variation or obesity can change how the ENS processes information-in effect reprogramming the ENS. In this review, the data gathered from intracellular recordings will be compared with measurements made using imaging techniques in an effort to determine if the lessons learnt from inflammatory changes are relevant to the understanding of diet-induced reprogramming.

Influence of Tryptophan and Serotonin on Mood and Cognition with a Possible Role of the Gut-Brain Axis.

The serotonergic system forms a diffuse network within the central nervous system and plays a significant role in the regulation of mood and cognition. Manipulation of tryptophan levels, acutely or chronically, by depletion or supplementation, is an experimental procedure for modifying peripheral and central serotonin levels. These studies have allowed us to establish the role of serotonin in higher order brain function in both preclinical and clinical situations and have precipitated the finding that low brain serotonin levels are associated with poor memory and depressed mood. The gut-brain axis is a bi-directional system between the brain and gastrointestinal tract, linking emotional and cognitive centres of the brain with peripheral functioning of the digestive tract. An influence of gut microbiota on behaviour is becoming increasingly evident, as is the extension to tryptophan and serotonin, producing a possibility that alterations in the gut may be important in the pathophysiology of human central nervous system disorders. In this review we will discuss the effect of manipulating tryptophan on mood and cognition, and discuss a possible influence of the gut-brain axis.

Detection of melatonin production from the intestinal epithelium using electrochemical methods.

The role of melatonin in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract had previously been limited to its well-described anti-oxidant properties. Recent studies have, however, expanded the role of melatonin in the intestine, showing that it acts as a hormone with local paracrine actions to modulate GI function and the release of other hormones. The GI epithelium produces melatonin from the active precursor serotonin, which is thought to come from the serotonin synthesising enterochromaffin cells (EC). The receptors for melatonin, the membrane bound melatonin receptors 1 and 2, are present on some smooth muscles, neurons, and epithelium. Endogenous release of melatonin has been linked with secretory reflexes and the ileal brake reflex, while exogenous application of melatonin in pharmacological doses has been associated with reduced inflammation in a variety of animal models. Recent studies have begun to look at melatonin release from the GI epithelium using real-time electrochemical detection methods. Using these techniques, the time course of melatonin production shows similarities to that of 5-HT release while the ratio of 5-HT to melatonin is altered during aging. In addition, the effects of melatonin supplementation on the production of endogenous melatonin and its precursor serotonin are suppressed. In summary, the role of melatonin in the GI tract is coming of age. There are many studies showing a clear role for endogenously produced melatonin and clear effects of melatonin supplementation. Newly developed electrochemical techniques for exploring melatonin availability in real-time promise to accelerate our understanding of GI melatonin in the years to come.