Latent profile analysis of transdiagnostic emotional distress, suicidality, and resilience in first responders.

BACKGROUND: First responders (i.e., law enforcement officers, firefighters, and emergency medical technicians/paramedics), experience significantly higher occupational trauma exposure than U.S. adult workers outside these fields, leading to increased risks of comorbid mental health disorders. Repeated and intense trauma exposure may combine with personal factors to place them at higher risk for suicide. Conversely, first responders may show higher levels of psychological resilience in the face of occupational trauma experiences. Some research exists on resilience, though little is known about suicide resilience in first responder populations. METHODS: We used latent profile analysis (LPA) on a treatment-seeking sample of first responders (N = 340) with measures of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), generalized anxiety, depression, suicidality, and resilience. RESULTS: We determined the best fit was a five-class solution, including the following emotional distress categories: minimal (19 %), mild (33 %), moderate (8 %), moderately severe (27 %), and severe (13 %) emotional distress. In this study, all multivariate analyses of variance (MANOVAs) were statistically significant and had large effect sizes ranging from the lowest (resilience) to the largest (depression). LIMITATIONS: We used self-report assessments and not a clinical interview. Also, we did not have data on measures of substance use, emotional dysregulation (e.g., attachment), or trauma exposure. CONCLUSIONS: This study underscores the critical need for developing and implementing transdiagnostic interventions that not only address the spectrum of emotional distress and suicidality but also actively enhance resilience among treatment-seeking first responders.

Mapping PTSD, depression, and anxiety: A network analysis of co-occurring symptoms in treatment-seeking first responders.

First responders are at high risk for a range of co-occurring mental health conditions due to their repeated exposure to traumatic events. When first responders present for treatment, their complex presentation of symptoms including posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) can prove challenging to differentiate for clinical purposes. Network analysis provides a means to identify the nuanced associations between the symptoms of these conditions and to identify groups of related symptoms. In this study, a treatment-seeking sample of first responders (N = 432) completed self-report measures of PTSD, depression, and GAD. Network analysis was used to identify symptom clusters within the sample. Our cross-sectional data yielded six empirically distinct communities: depression symptoms, GAD symptoms, and four communities comprising PTSD symptoms - intrusion and avoidance; irritability and aggression; negative affect; and arousal and sleep. Network associations underscore the heterogeneity of PTSD and also highlight overlapping and diverging symptoms of depression and GAD. These findings are discussed within the context of existing research on first responders, and recommendations for further study and treatment interventions are provided.

Network analysis of posttraumatic stress disorder in a treatment-seeking sample of US firefighters and emergency medical technicians.

BACKGROUND: First responders, including firefighters and emergency medical technicians (EMTs), are under extreme stress from repeated exposure to potentially traumatic events. To optimize treatment for this population, it is critical to understand how the various posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptom factors are associated with one another so these relations may be targeted in treatment. METHOD: Using a sample of treatment-seeking firefighters/EMTs (N = 342), we conducted a partial correlation network analysis of the eight-factor model. A Bayesian directed acyclic graph (DAG) was used to estimate causal associations between clusters. RESULTS: Approximately 37 % of the sample screened positive for probable PTSD. Internal re-experiencing and external re-experiencing had the strongest edges. In the DAG, internal re-experiencing was the parent node and was potentially predictive of external re-experiencing, negative affect, dysphoric arousal, and avoidance. LIMITATIONS: Data were drawn from a treatment-seeking sample that may not generalize to all firefighters/EMTs. CONCLUSIONS: The current findings are consistent with prior research suggesting re-experiencing plays a critical role in developing and maintaining PTSD symptoms. Future research should investigate non-treatment-seeking first responders, as well as EMTs and firefighters as individual populations.

Validation of the PCL-5, PHQ-9, and GAD-7 in a Sample of Veterans.

OBJECTIVE: Veterans can present at nongovernment (Department of Defense, Department of Veterans Affairs) mental health agencies with complex symptom constellations that frequently include posttraumatic stress disorder, depression, and generalized anxiety. To date, no veteran study has validated these measures on a treatment-seeking sample of veterans outside the DoD and VA. METHODS: We used a treatment-seeking sample of veterans ( N = 493) to validate measures that assess these constructs (PTSD Checklist 5, Patient Health Questionnaire-9, and Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7). RESULTS: The seven-factor posttraumatic stress disorder hybrid configuration was the best fit. The best fitting model of the depression measure was a two-factor structure, cognitive-affective, and somatic depression. The measure of generalized anxiety was a unidimensional model. LIMITATIONS: Follow-up studies should validate these measures on nontreatment-seeking discharged veterans. CONCLUSIONS: We interpret these findings within the veteran scholarship and explore clinical implications for providers.

Predictors of Suicide and Differences in Attachment Styles and Resilience Among Treatment-Seeking First-Responder Subtypes.

OBJECTIVE: To identify the predictors of suicide for firefighters (FFs), emergency medical technicians (EMTs), and law enforcement officers (LEOs). METHODS: We used baseline data from FFs/EMTs (n = 69) and LEOs (n = 81) to investigate the unique predictors for both first-responder subtypes. We conducted confirmatory factor analysis on validated assessments of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression. Measures of attachment, resilience, PTSD, depression, generalized anxiety, trauma history, and substance use were the independent variables in two backward stepwise regressions predicting suicide. RESULTS: Substance use and somatic depression were significant predictors for LEOs, whereas affective depression, anhedonia, externalizing behaviors, trauma history, and generalized anxiety were significant predictors for FFs/EMTs. LIMITATIONS: These data are cross-sectional and should be modeled longitudinally over the course of treatment. CONCLUSION: Separate constructs influence suicide for LEOs and FFs/EMTs.

Differences in Resilience and Mental Health Symptoms Among US First Responders With Secure and Insecure Attachment.

OBJECTIVE: This observational study aimed to determine whether attachment style predicted first responders' mental health and resilience. METHOD: Data were from a treatment-seeking sample of first responders ( N = 237). Each participant completed six assessments measuring attachment, resilience, generalized anxiety, depression, suicidality, and posttraumatic stress disorder. RESULTS: On the attachment assessment, 25.3% were categorized as secure, 19.0% as dismissive, 25.3% as preoccupied, and 30.4% as fearfully attached. As predicted, securely attached participants had the lowest scores for generalized anxiety, depression, suicidality, and posttraumatic stress disorder and the highest scores on the resiliency measure, followed by dismissive, preoccupied, and fearfully attached participants. LIMITATIONS: These data are cross-sectional and causality cannot be inferred. CONCLUSIONS: Results highlight the importance of the study of attachment to psychotherapy and mental health treatment with first responders.

Validation of the PCL-5, PHQ-9, and GAD-7 in a Sample of First Responders.

OBJECTIVE: First responders (FRs) commonly present for treatment with complex symptom constellations that frequently include posttraumatic stress disorder, depression, and generalized anxiety. To date, no FR study has validated these measures on a treatment-seeking sample. METHODS: Confirmatory factor analysis was utilized to validate measures that assess these constructs (Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist for DSM-5, Patient Health Questionnaire-9, and Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7) on a treatment-seeking sample of FRs ( N = 390). RESULTS: The seven-factor posttraumatic stress disorder hybrid configuration was the best fit. The best fitting factor model of the depression measure was a two-factor structure, cognitive-affective and somatic depression. Lastly, generalized anxiety was a unidimensional construct. LIMITATIONS: Follow-up studies should validate these measures on each FR subtype. CONCLUSION: We position these findings within the FR literature, review clinical implications for providers, and offer recommendations for future research.

Affective Depression Mediates PTSD to Suicide in a Sample of Treatment-Seeking First Responders.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to examine the associations of comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), affective or somatic depression, and suicide among first responders (FRs). METHOD: We used baseline data from FRs ( N = 232) who sought services at a nonprofit mental health agency specializing in treating trauma exposed FRs. We conducted two PROCESS simple mediation models with PTSD as the predictor, affective depression and somatic depression as the mediators, and suicidality as the dependent variable. RESULTS: Affective depression significantly mediated the relationship between PTSD and suicidality, whereas somatic depression did not. The direct effect of PTSD on suicidality was not significant. LIMITATIONS: These data are cross-sectional and should be followed up with longitudinal analyses across the course of treatment. CONCLUSIONS: To reduce suicide risk, it is recommended that clinicians target affective depression instead of PTSD symptoms.

Network analysis of distress, suicidality, and resilience in a treatment seeking sample of first responders.

INTRODUCTION: First responders are routinely and regularly exposed to traumatic events that can clinically manifest with a symptom constellation of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), generalized anxiety, depression, and suicidality. METHODS: We used network analysis to examine baseline data from treatment seeking first responders (n = 308) to examine the interrelatedness of those constructs, including a measure of resilience. We estimated two models: a regularized partial correlation network and a Bayesian Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG). RESULTS: The models reveal converging evidence highlighting the central role of negative alterations in cognitions and mood PTSD cluster along with affective depression. These nodes did not significantly differ, though they were among the strongest in the partial correlation network and shared the most variance with the other nodes. The DAG results suggested that the negative alterations in cognitions and mood PTSD cluster predicted downstream constructs of affective depression; intrusion, hyperarousal, and avoidance PTSD clusters; and resilience. Only resilience and affective depression exhibited direct effects on suicidality. Both somatic depression and suicidality were endogenous endpoints in the DAG. Resilience exhibited an inverse path to suicide. However, resilience was relatively independent of the other constructs in the models and the DAG suggested that it was a consequence of PTSD related distress. LIMITATIONS: The data is cross-sectional in nature that should be followed up in longitudinal studies. CONCLUSION: Findings are discussed in respect to the role of distress and emotional dysregulation as common factors underlying a broad range of internalizing problems.

Differences in Suicidality in Non-Treatment-Seeking and Treatment-Seeking Law Enforcement Officers: A Cross-sectional Study.

OBJECTIVE: Law enforcement officers (LEOs) are exposed to high levels of occupational trauma and face added stress from heightened public scrutiny and COVID-19, which may result in suicide. It is crucial to understand differences between LEOs who seek treatment and those who do not. METHOD: We compared LEOs from the same greater metropolitan area who sought treatment with those who did not. Participants completed validated measures assessing posttraumatic stress disorder, generalized anxiety, depression, and suicidality. RESULTS: The treatment-seeking sample scores were higher on all standardized assessments. Bivariate logistic regression results indicated that the non-treatment-seeking sample's odds of experiencing suicidality were 1.76 times the odds for the treatment seeking sample. Conclusions: This suggests that many LEOs experiencing suicidality may not be seeking treatment and highlights the role that posttraumatic stress disorder may play in determining whether LEOs seek treatment or not.

Possible substance use disorders among first responders during the COVID-19 era: a quasi-experimental study of personal and residential vulnerability.

Background: During the COVID-19 pandemic possible substance use disorders (SUD) were exacerbated from increased stress and isolation. Experiences of symptomology differ widely by occupations.Objectives: The objectives were to determine if there is a temporal relationship between COVID-19 vulnerability and possible SUDs among first responders, and to examine the association with neighborhood vulnerability.Methods: We conducted an analysis with two distinct cohorts dependent on time of entry: 1) First responders that began counseling prior to COVID-19 and 2) First responders that began counseling after the start of COVID-19. Data were collected at intake from first responders seeking mental health services between 2017 and 2021 at an organization in Dallas/Fort Worth, Texas. The study sample included 195 mostly male (75%) first responders (51% law enforcement officers; 49% emergency medical technicians/firefighters). Bivariate models tested unadjusted relationships between covariates and possible SUD. Adjusted models consisted of a two-level multivariable logistic regression models.Results: Nearly 40% (n = 77) screened positive for a possible SUD. Those beginning counseling after COVID-19 did not have higher odds of SUDs. For every unit increase in neighborhood Severe COVID-19 Health Risk Index at a first responder's residential location there was an increase in the odds of a possible SUD (AOR = 3.14, 95% CI: 1.47, 6.75).Conclusions: Our study highlights the degree to which personal and residential vulnerability to COVID-19 impacted first responders. The increased occupational stress of this population, and an established pattern of maladaptive coping, elucidates the need for preventative and clinical approaches to strengthen the resilience of this population.

Validation of the adapted response to stressful experiences scale.

There is evidence to suggest that resilience may be a protective factor to moderate the experience of mental health symptoms among military personnel. The present study analyzed the validity and reliability of a full-scale and adapted measure of resilience from a sample of 470 U.S. military service Veterans receiving clinical services from a civilian nonprofit agency. Results of an exploratory factor analysis, a two-factor confirmatory factor analysis, and a single-factor confirmatory factor analysis indicated that while the Response to Stressful Experiences Scale (RSES) indicated a fair model fit for the sample, the brief measure of resilience (RSES-4) demonstrated a better factor structure (RMR = .017, GFI = .995, CFI = .994, TLI = .981, RMSEA = .057), criterion and concurrent validity, and acceptable internal consistency.