Vascular compliance limits during sleep deprivation and recovery sleep.

STUDY OBJECTIVES: Our previous studies showed that evoked hemodynamic responses are smaller during wake compared to sleep; suggesting neural activity is associated with vascular expansion and decreased compliance. We explored whether prolonged activity during sleep deprivation may exacerbate vascular expansion and blunt hemodynamic responses. DESIGN: Evoked auditory responses were generated with periodic 65 dB speaker clicks over a 72-h period and measured with cortical electrodes. Evoked hemodynamic responses were measured simultaneously with optical techniques using three light-emitting diodes, and a photodiode. SETTING: Animals were housed in separate 30×30×80 cm enclosures, tethered to a commutator system and maintained on a 12-h light/dark cycle. Food and water were available ad libitum. PATIENTS OR PARTICIPANTS: Seven adult female Sprague-Dawley rats. INTERVENTIONS: Following a 24-h baseline recording, sleep deprivation was initiated for 0 to 10 h by gentle handling, followed by a 24-h recovery sleep recording. Evoked electrical and hemodynamic responses were measured before, during, and after sleep deprivation. MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS: Following deprivation, evoked hemodynamic amplitudes were blunted. Steady-state oxyhemoglobin concentration increased during deprivation and remained high during the initial recovery period before returning to baseline levels after approximately 9-h. CONCLUSIONS: Sleep deprivation resulted in blood vessel expansion and decreased compliance while lower basal neural activity during recovery sleep may allow blood vessel compliance to recover. Chronic sleep restriction or sleep deprivation could push the vasculature to critical levels, limiting blood delivery, and leading to metabolic deficits with the potential for neural trauma.

Sleep: a synchrony of cell activity-driven small network states.

We posit a bottom-up sleep-regulatory paradigm in which state changes are initiated within small networks as a consequence of local cell activity. Bottom-up regulatory mechanisms are prevalent throughout nature, occurring in vastly different systems and levels of organization. Synchronization of state without top-down regulation is a fundamental property of large collections of small semi-autonomous entities. We posit that such synchronization mechanisms are sufficient and necessary for whole-organism sleep onset. Within the brain we posit that small networks of highly interconnected neurons and glia, for example cortical columns, are semi-autonomous units oscillating between sleep-like and wake-like states. We review evidence showing that cells, small networks and regional areas of the brain share sleep-like properties with whole-animal sleep. A testable hypothesis focused on how sleep is initiated within local networks is presented. We posit that the release of cell activity-dependent molecules, such as ATP and nitric oxide, into the extracellular space initiates state changes within the local networks where they are produced. We review mechanisms of ATP induction of sleep-regulatory substances and their actions on receptor trafficking. Finally, we provide an example of how such local metabolic and state changes provide mechanistic explanations for clinical conditions, such as insomnia.

State-dependent changes in cortical gain control as measured by auditory evoked responses to varying intensity stimuli.

STUDY OBJECTIVES: Auditory evoked potential (AEP) components correspond to sequential activation of brain structures within the auditory pathway and reveal neural activity during sensory processing. To investigate state-dependent modulation of stimulus intensity response profiles within different brain structures, we assessed AEP components across both stimulus intensity and state. DESIGN: We implanted adult female Sprague-Dawley rats (N = 6) with electrodes to measure EEG, EKG, and EMG. Intermittent auditory stimuli (6-12 s) varying from 50 to 75 dBa were delivered over a 24-h period. Data were parsed into 2-s epochs and scored for wake/sleep state. RESULTS: All AEP components increased in amplitude with increased stimulus intensity during wake. During quiet sleep, however, only the early latency response (ELR) showed this relationship, while the middle latency response (MLR) increased at the highest 75 dBa intensity, and the late latency response (LLR) showed no significant change across the stimulus intensities tested. During rapid eye movement sleep (REM), both ELR and LLR increased, similar to wake, but MLR was severely attenuated. CONCLUSIONS: Stimulation intensity and the corresponding AEP response profile were dependent on both brain structure and sleep state. Lower brain structures maintained stimulus intensity and neural response relationships during sleep. This relationship was not observed in the cortex, implying state-dependent modification of stimulus intensity coding. Since AEP amplitude is not modulated by stimulus intensity during sleep, differences between paired 75/50 dBa stimuli could be used to determine state better than individual intensities.

Assessment of network states: local hemodynamics.

Neural activity utilizes energy resources and requires replenishment of metabolites through vascular dilation. During wake, cortical neurons usually have depolarized membrane potentials and exhibit frequent spontaneous action potentials, requiring an increased metabolic delivery to activated tissue and causing blood vessels to dilate. Quiet sleep (QS) is characterized by alternating membrane potential between a depolarized and hyperpolarized state. The hyperpolarized state has a lower membrane potential and exhibits few action potentials, which may be less metabolically demanding. In order to investigate the relationship between evoked neural and metabolic responses across wake and sleep states, we combined electrical and optical imaging techniques. We implanted rats with screw electrodes to measure evoked response potentials (ERPs), and used a light emitting diode (LED) and photodiode to measure evoked changes in local hemodynamics based on hemoglobin absorption properties. During QS, hemodynamic changes were larger in amplitude compared to wake and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. In this review, we explore the potential mechanisms for the larger hemodynamic changes. Wake periods may correspond to decreased vessel compliance as they expand to supply tissue with metabolites while sleep periods may decrease metabolic demand and allow vessels to relax and restore compliance.

Evoked electrical and cerebral vascular responses during sleep and following sleep deprivation.

Neuronal activity elicits vascular dilation, delivering additional blood and metabolites to the activated region. With increasing neural activity, vessels stretch and may become less compliant. Most functional imaging studies assume that limits to vascular expansion are not normally reached except under pathological conditions, with the possibility that metabolism could outpace supply. However, we previously demonstrated that evoked hemodynamic responses were larger during quiet sleep when compared to both waking and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, suggesting that high basal activity during wake may elicit blunted evoked hemodynamic responses due to vascular expansion limits. We hypothesized that extended brain activity through sleep deprivation will further dilate blood vessels and exacerbate the blunted evoked hemodynamic responses observed during wake, and dampen responses in subsequent sleep. We measured evoked electrical and hemodynamic responses from rats using auditory clicks (0.5s, 10 Hz, 2-13s random ISIs) for 1h following 2, 4, or 6h of sleep deprivation. Time-of-day matched controls were recorded continuously for 7h. Within quiet sleep periods following deprivation, evoked response potential (ERP) amplitude did not differ; however, the evoked vascular response was smaller with longer sleep deprivation periods. These results suggest that prolonged neural activity periods through sleep deprivation may diminish vascular compliance as indicated by the blunted vascular response. Subsequent sleep may allow vessels to relax, restoring their ability to deliver blood. These results also suggest that severe sleep deprivation or chronic sleep disturbances could push the vasculature to critical limits, leading to metabolic deficit and the potential for tissue trauma.

Cortical evoked responses associated with arousal from sleep.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: To determine if low-level intermittent auditory stimuli have the potential to disrupt sleep during 24-h recordings, we assessed arousal occurrence to varying stimulus intensities. Additionally, if stimulus-generated evoked response potential (ERP) components provide a metric of underlying cortical state, then a particular ERP structure may precede an arousal. DESIGN: Physiological electrodes measuring EEG, EKG, and EMG were implanted into 5 adult female Sprague-Dawley rats. We delivered auditory stimuli of varying intensities (50-75 dBa sound pressure level SPL) at random intervals of 6-12 s over a 24-hour period. Recordings were divided into 2-s epochs and scored for sleep/wake state. Following each stimulus, we identified whether the animal stayed asleep or woke. We then sorted the stimuli depending on prior and post-stimulus state, and measured ERP components. RESULTS: Auditory stimuli did not produce a significant increase in the number of arousals compared to silent control periods. Overall, arousal from REM sleep occurred more often compared to quiet sleep. ERPs preceding an arousal had decreased mean area and shorter N1 latency. CONCLUSION: Low level auditory stimuli did not fragment animal sleep since we observed no significant change in arousal occurrence. Arousals that occurred within 4 s of a stimulus exhibited an ERP mean area and latency had features similar to ERPs generated during wake, indicating that the underlying cortical tissue state may contribute to physiological conditions required for arousal.

Rat psychomotor vigilance task with fast response times using a conditioned lick behavior.

Investigations into the physiological mechanisms of sleep control require an animal psychomotor vigilance task (PVT) with fast response times (<300 ms). Rats provide a good PVT model since whisker stimulation produces a rapid and robust cortical evoked response, and animals can be trained to lick following stimulation. Our prior experiments used deprivation-based approaches to maximize motivation for operant conditioned responses. However, deprivation can influence physiological and neurobehavioral effects. In order to maintain motivation without water deprivation, we conditioned rats for immobilization and head restraint, then trained them to lick for a 10% sucrose solution in response to whisker stimulation. After approximately 8 training sessions, animals produced greater than 80% correct hits to the stimulus. Over the course of training, reaction times became faster and correct hits increased. Performance in the PVT was examined after 3, 6 and 12 h of sleep deprivation achieved by gentle handling. A significant decrease in percent correct hits occurred following 6 and 12 h of sleep deprivation and reaction times increased significantly following 12 h of sleep deprivation. While behaviorally the animals appeared to be awake, we observed significant increases in EEG delta power prior to misses. The rat PVT with fast response times allows investigation of sleep deprivation effects, time-on-task and pharmacological agents. Fast response times also allow closer parallel studies to ongoing human protocols.

Precision rodent whisker stimulator with integrated servo-locked control and displacement measurement.

We developed a high speed voice coil based whisker stimulator that delivers precise deflections of a single whisker or group of whiskers in a repeatable manner. The device is miniature, quiet, and inexpensive to build. Multiple stimulators fit together for independent stimulation of four or more whiskers. The system can be used with animals under anesthesia as well as awake animals with head-restraint, and does not require trimming the whiskers. The system can deliver 1-2 mm deflections in 2 ms resulting in velocities up to 900 mm/s to attain a wide range of evoked responses. Since auditory artifacts can influence behavioral studies using whisker stimulation, we tested potential effects of auditory noise by recording somatosensory evoked potentials (SEP) with varying auditory click levels, and with/without 80 dBa background white noise. We found that auditory clicks as low as 40 dBa significantly influence the SEP. With background white noise, auditory clicks as low as 50 dBa were still detected in components of the SEP. For behavioral studies where animals must learn to respond to whisker stimulation, these sounds must be minimized. Together, the stimulator and data system can be used for psychometric vigilance tasks, mapping of the barrel cortex and other electrophysiological paradigms.

Physiological markers of local sleep.

Substantial evidence suggests that brain regions that have been disproportionately used during waking will require a greater intensity and/or duration of subsequent sleep. For example, rats use their whiskers in the dark and their eyes during the light, and this is manifested as a greater magnitude of electroencephalogram (EEG) slow-wave activity in the somatosensory and visual cortex during sleep in the corresponding light and dark periods respectively. The parsimonious interpretation of such findings is that sleep is distributed across local brain regions and is use-dependent. The fundamental properties of sleep can also be experimentally defined locally at the level of small neural assemblies such as cortical columns. In this view, sleep is orchestrated, but not fundamentally driven, by central mechanisms. We explore two physiological markers of local, use-dependent sleep, namely, an electrical marker apparent as a change in the size and shape of an electrical evoked response, and a metabolic marker evident as an evoked change in blood volume and oxygenation delivered to activated tissue. Both markers, applied to cortical columns, provide a means to investigate physiological mechanisms for the distributed homeostatic regulation of sleep, and may yield new insights into the consequences of sleep loss and sleep pathologies on waking brain function.

State-dependent auditory evoked hemodynamic responses recorded optically with indwelling photodiodes.

Implantable optical technologies provide measurements of cerebral hemodynamic activity from freely behaving animals without movement constraint or anesthesia. In order to study state-dependent neural evoked responses and the consequential hemodynamic response, we simultaneously measured EEG and scattered light changes in chronically implanted rats. Recordings took place under freely behaving conditions, allowing us to compare the evoked responses across wake, sleep, and anesthetized states. The largest evoked electrical and optical responses occurred during quiet sleep compared to wake and REM sleep, while isoflurane anesthesia showed a large, late burst of electrical activity synchronized to the stimulus but an earlier optical response.

Complete optical neurophysiology: toward optical stimulation and recording of neural tissue.

Direct optical methods to stimulate and record neural activity provide artifact-free, noninvasive, and noncontact neurophysiological procedures. For stimulation, focused mid-infrared light alters membrane potential and activates individual neural processes. Simultaneous intrinsic scattered light parameters, including birefringence changes, can record neural activity with signals similar to potentiometric dyes. The simultaneous combination of optical stimulation and optical recording techniques provide the potential for powerful tools that may someday remove the need for invasive wires during electrophysiological recordings.

Conditioned lick behavior and evoked responses using whisker twitches in head restrained rats.

To examine whisker barrel evoked response potentials in chronically implanted rats during behavioral learning with very fast response times, rats must be calm while immobilized with their head restrained. We quantified their behaviors during training with an ethogram and measured each individual animals' progress over the training period. Once calm under restraint, rats were conditioned to differentiate between a reward and control whisker twitch, then provide a lick response when presented with the correct stimulus, rewarded by a drop of water. Rats produced the correct licking response (after reward whisker twitch), and learned not to lick after a control whisker was twitched. By implementing a high-density 64-channel electrocorticogram (ECoG) electrode array, we mapped the barrel field of the somatosensory cortex with high spatial and temporal resolution during conditioned lick behaviors. In agreement with previous reports, we observe a larger evoked response after training, probably related to mechanisms of cortical plasticity.

Discrimination of auditory stimuli during isoflurane anesthesia.

Deep isoflurane anesthesia initiates a burst suppression pattern in which high-amplitude bursts are preceded by periods of nearly silent electroencephalogram. The burst suppression ratio (BSR) is the percentage of suppression (silent electroencephalogram) during the burst suppression pattern and is one parameter used to assess anesthesia depth. We investigated cortical burst activity in rats in response to different auditory stimuli presented during the burst suppression state. We noted a rapid appearance of bursts and a significant decrease in the BSR during stimulation. The BSR changes were distinctive for the different stimuli applied, and the BSR decreased significantly more when stimulated with a voice familiar to the rat as compared with an unfamiliar voice. These results show that the cortex can show differential sensory responses during deep isoflurane anesthesia.

Sleep as a fundamental property of neuronal assemblies.

Sleep is vital to cognitive performance, productivity, health and well-being. Earlier theories of sleep presumed that it occurred at the level of the whole organism and that it was governed by central control mechanisms. However, evidence now indicates that sleep might be regulated at a more local level in the brain: it seems to be a fundamental property of neuronal networks and is dependent on prior activity in each network. Such local-network sleep might be initiated by metabolically driven changes in the production of sleep-regulatory substances. We discuss a mathematical model which illustrates that the sleep-like states of individual cortical columns can be synchronized through humoral and electrical connections, and that whole-organism sleep occurs as an emergent property of local-network interactions.

In vitro and in vivo noise analysis for optical neural recording.

Laser diodes (LD) are commonly used for optical neural recordings in chronically recorded animals and humans, primarily due to their brightness and small size. However, noise introduced by LDs may counteract the benefits of brightness when compared to low-noise light-emitting diodes (LEDs). To understand noise sources in optical recordings, we systematically compared instrument and physiological noise profiles in two recording paradigms. A better understanding of noise sources can help improve optical recordings and make them more practical with fewer averages. We stimulated lobster nerves and a rat cortex, then compared the root mean square (RMS) noise and signal-to-noise ratios (SNRs) of data obtained with LED, superluminescent diode (SLD), and LD illumination for different numbers of averages. The LED data exhibited significantly higher SNRs in fewer averages than LD data in all recordings. In the absence of tissue, LED noise increased linearly with intensity, while LD noise increased sharply in the transition to lasing and settled to noise levels significantly higher than the LED's, suggesting that speckle noise contributed to the LD's higher noise and lower SNRs. Our data recommend low coherence and portable light sources for in vivo chronic neural recording applications.

Characterization of flexible ECoG electrode arrays for chronic recording in awake rats.

We developed a 64-channel flexible polyimide ECoG electrode array and characterized its performance for long-term implantation, chronic cortical recording and high resolution mapping of surface-evoked potentials in awake rats. To achieve the longest possible recording periods, the flexibility of the electrode array, adhesion between the metals and carrier substrate, and biocompatibility were critical for maintaining the signal integrity. Experimental testing of thin film adhesion was applied to a gold-polyimide system in order to characterize relative interfacial fracture energies for several different adhesion layers, yielding an increase in overall device reliability. We tested several different adhesion techniques including the following: gold alone without an adhesion layer, titanium-tungsten, tantalum and chromium. We found titanium-tungsten to be a suitable adhesion layer considering the biocompatibility requirements as well as stability and delamination resistance. While chromium and tantalum produced stronger gold adhesion, concerns over biocompatibility of these materials require further testing. We implanted the polyimide ECoG electrode arrays through a slit made in the skull of rats and recorded cortical surface evoked responses. The arrays performed reliably over a period of at least 100 days and signals compared well with traditional screw electrodes, with better high frequency response characteristics. Since the ultimate goal of chronically implanted electrode arrays is for neural prosthetic devices that need to last many decades, other adhesion layers that would prove safe for implantation may be tested in the same way in order to improve the device reliability.

A network model for activity-dependent sleep regulation.

We develop and characterize a dynamical network model for activity-dependent sleep regulation. Specifically, in accordance with the activity-dependent theory for sleep, we view organism sleep as emerging from the local sleep states of functional units known as cortical columns; these local sleep states evolve through integration of local activity inputs, loose couplings with neighboring cortical columns, and global regulation (e.g. by the circadian clock). We model these cortical columns as coupled or networked activity-integrators that transition between sleep and waking states based on thresholds on the total activity. The model dynamics for three canonical experiments (which we have studied both through simulation and system-theoretic analysis) match with experimentally observed characteristics of the cortical-column network. Most notably, assuming connectedness of the network graph, our model predicts the recovery of the columns to a synchronized state upon temporary overstimulation of a single column and/or randomization of the initial sleep and activity-integration states. In analogy with other models for networked oscillators, our model also predicts the possibility for such phenomena as mode-locking.

Action potential propagation imaged with high temporal resolution near-infrared video microscopy and polarized light.

To identify the neural constituents responsible for generating polarized light changes, we created spatially resolved movies of propagating action potentials from stimulated lobster leg nerves using both reflection and transmission imaging modalities. Changes in light polarization are associated with membrane depolarization and provide sub-millisecond temporal resolution. Typically, signals are detected using light transmitted through tissue; however, because we eventually would like to apply polarization techniques in-vivo, reflected light is required. In transmission mode, the optical signal was largest throughout the center of the nerve, suggesting that most of the optical signal arose from the inner nerve bundle. In reflection mode, polarization changes were largest near the edges, suggesting that most of the optical signal arose from the outer sheath. In support of these observations, an optical model of the tissue showed that the outer sheath is more reflective while the inner nerve bundle is more transmissive. In order to apply these techniques in-vivo, we must consider that brain tissue does not have a regular orientation of processes as in the lobster nerve. We tested the effect of randomizing cell orientation by tying the nerve in an overhand knot prior to imaging, producing polarization changes that can be imaged even without regular cell orientations.