Lead-Induced Atypical Parkinsonism in Rats: Behavioral, Electrophysiological, and Neurochemical Evidence for a Role of Noradrenaline Depletion.

Background: Lead neurotoxicity is a major health problem known as a risk factor for neurodegenerative diseases, including the manifestation of parkinsonism-like disorder. While lead is known to preferentially accumulate in basal ganglia, the mechanisms underlying behavioral disorders remain unknown. Here, we investigated the neurophysiological and biochemical correlates of motor deficits induced by sub-chronic injections of lead. Methods: Sprague Dawely rats were exposed to sub-chronic injections of lead (10 mg/kg, i.p.) or to a single i.p. injection of 50 mg/kg N-(2-chloroethyl)-N-ethyl-2-bromobenzylamine hydrochloride (DSP-4), a drug known to induce selective depletion of noradrenaline. Rats were submitted to a battery of behavioral tests, including the open field for locomotor activity and rotarod for motor coordination. Electrophysiological recordings were carried out in three major basal ganglia nuclei, the subthalamic nucleus (STN), globus pallidus (GP), and substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNr). At the end of experiments, post-mortem tissue level of the three monoamines (dopamine, noradrenaline, and serotonin) and their metabolites has been determined using HPLC. Results: Lead intoxication significantly impaired exploratory and locomotor activity as well as motor coordination. It resulted in a significant reduction in the level of noradrenaline in the cortex and dopamine and its metabolites, DOPAC, and HVA, in the striatum. The tissue level of serotonin and its metabolite 5-HIAA was not affected in the two structures. Similarly, DSP-4, which induced a selective depletion of noradrenaline, significantly decreased exploratory, and locomotor activity as well as motor coordination. L-DOPA treatment did not improve motor deficits induced by lead and DSP-4 in the two animal groups. Electrophysiological recordings showed that both lead and DSP-4 did not change the firing rate but resulted in a switch from the regular normal firing to irregular and bursty discharge patterns of STN neurons. Neither lead nor DSP-4 treatments changed the firing rate and the pattern of GP and SNr neurons. Conclusions: Our findings provide evidence that lead represents a risk factor for inducing parkinsonism-like deficits. As the motor deficits induced by lead were not improved by L-DOPA, we suggest that the deficits may be due to the depletion of noradrenaline and the parallel disorganization of STN neuronal activity.

Circadian Clock Protein Content and Daily Rhythm of Locomotor Activity Are Altered after Chronic Exposure to Lead in Rat.

Lead exposure has been reported to produce many clinical features, including parkinsonism. However, its consequences on the circadian rhythms are still unknown. Here we aimed to examine the circadian rhythms of locomotor activity following lead intoxication and investigate the mechanisms by which lead may induce alterations of circadian rhythms in rats. Male Wistar rats were injected with lead or sodium acetate (10 mg/kg/day, i.p.) during 4 weeks. Both groups were tested in the "open field" to quantify the exploratory activity and in the rotarod to evaluate motor coordination. Then, animals were submitted to continuous 24 h recordings of locomotor activity under 14/10 Light/dark (14/10 LD) cycle and in complete darkness (DD). At the end of experiments, the clock proteins BMAL1, PER1-2, and CRY1-2 were assayed in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) using immunohistochemistry. We showed that lead significantly reduced the number of crossing in the open field, impaired motor coordination and altered the daily locomotor activity rhythm. When the LD cycle was advanced by 6 h, both groups adjusted their daily locomotor activity to the new LD cycle with high onset variability in lead-intoxicated rats compared to controls. Lead also led to a decrease in the number of immunoreactive cells (ir-) of BMAL1, PER1, and PER2 without affecting the number of ir-CRY1 and ir-CRY2 cells in the SCN. Our data provide strong evidence that lead intoxication disturbs the rhythm of locomotor activity and alters clock proteins expression in the SCN. They contribute to the understanding of the mechanism by which lead induce circadian rhythms disturbances.

Synaptopathies: synaptic dysfunction in neurological disorders - A review from students to students.

Synapses are essential components of neurons and allow information to travel coordinately throughout the nervous system to adjust behavior to environmental stimuli and to control body functions, memories, and emotions. Thus, optimal synaptic communication is required for proper brain physiology, and slight perturbations of synapse function can lead to brain disorders. In fact, increasing evidence has demonstrated the relevance of synapse dysfunction as a major determinant of many neurological diseases. This notion has led to the concept of synaptopathies as brain diseases with synapse defects as shared pathogenic features. In this review, which was initiated at the 13th International Society for Neurochemistry Advanced School, we discuss basic concepts of synapse structure and function, and provide a critical view of how aberrant synapse physiology may contribute to neurodevelopmental disorders (autism, Down syndrome, startle disease, and epilepsy) as well as neurodegenerative disorders (Alzheimer and Parkinson disease). We finally discuss the appropriateness and potential implications of gathering synapse diseases under a single term. Understanding common causes and intrinsic differences in disease-associated synaptic dysfunction could offer novel clues toward synapse-based therapeutic intervention for neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders. In this Review, which was initiated at the 13th International Society for Neurochemistry (ISN) Advanced School, we discuss basic concepts of synapse structure and function, and provide a critical view of how aberrant synapse physiology may contribute to neurodevelopmental (autism, Down syndrome, startle disease, and epilepsy) as well as neurodegenerative disorders (Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases), gathered together under the term of synaptopathies. Read the Editorial Highlight for this article on page 783.

Simulated acute central Mycoplasma infections in rats induce fever, anorexia, body mass stunting and lethargy but spare memory.

Despite the documented post-infectious neurological complications of a central nervous system (CNS) Mycoplasma infection in humans, very few studies have investigated the acute inflammatory responses and sickness behaviours induced by CNS Mycoplasma infections. We therefore determined the effect of acute central administration of fibroblast-stimulating lipopeptide-1 (FSL-1), derived from Mycoplasma salivarium, and FAM-20 from a more pathogenic species, namely Mycoplasma pneumoniae, on behavioural and inflammatory responses in rats. Male Sprague-Dawley rats had radiotransmitters implanted, intra-abdominally, to measure body temperature and cage activity continuously. After recovery from surgery, rats were conditioned in a fear conditioning task and then immediately received an intra-cisterna magna (i.c.m.) injection of either: (1) FSL-1 (10 or 100µg/5µl) or its vehicle (phosphate-buffered saline, 5µl), or (2) FAM-20 (10 or 100µg/5µl) or its vehicle (dimethyl sulfoxide, 5µl). Body mass and food intake were measured daily. Memory was assessed seven days after injection using fear conditioning tests. A single, i.c.m. injection of either FSL-1 or FAM-20 induced profound, dose-dependent fever, anorexia, lethargy and body mass stunting in rats. Moreover, rats that received an i.c.m. injection of 100µg/5µl FAM-20 had a significant increase in the concentration of IL-1ß in both the hypothalamus and the hippocampus for ~27h after injection. Seven days after FSL-1 or FAM-20 injection, when body mass of rats still was stunted, they maintained their memory for fear of the context and for fear of the tone, despite the increase in hippocampal IL-1ß concentration after FAM-20 administration. Thus, acute simulated CNS Mycoplasma infections caused pronounced sickness responses and brain inflammation in rats, but spared fear memory.

Phase and period responses of the jerboa Jaculus orientalis to short light pulses.

The phase and period responses to short light pulses were studied in the jerboa, a seasonal, hibernating, nocturnal rodent from the Atlas region in Morocco. The jerboa, which is a saltatory species, showed precise activity onsets and offsets under a light-dark (LD) cycle using infrared captors to record locomotor activity. When released into constant darkness (DD), the majority of animals showed a circadian period (tau) < 24 h (mean tau = 23.89 +/- 0.13 h) and a lengthening of the activity span, alpha. Animals were subsequently exposed to up to eight 15-min light pulses, each separated by at least 2 wks, for up to 160 days in DD. During this span, most individuals maintained robust circadian rhythmicity, with clearly defined activity onsets and offsets, similar levels of total activity, duration of alpha, and percent activity occurring during the subjective night. The phase response curve (PRC) is typical of other nocturnal rodents, with light eliciting delays during late subjective day and early subjective night (CT8-CT19) and advances during late subjective night to early subjective day (CT19-CT2). A dead zone, when light had no effect on phase, is observed during mid-subjective day (CT3-CT8). A few individuals showed large (> 9 h) Type 0 phase resetting near the singularity region (CT19) that resulted in a complete phase reversal, but otherwise displayed normal phase-shifting responses at other CT times. The tau response curve showed a decrease in period from early to late subjective night with increases at other times, but these changes were small (maximum < 9 min) and highly variable. There was a distinct tendency for animals that had an initial short tau in DD to conserve a short tau during the series of light pulses and, inversely, for animals with long tau to conserve a long tau. This suggests possible constraints on the plasticity of variation of tau in relation to the endogenous period of the animal.