Assessing the chemical landscape of the Galápagos Marine Reserve.

The Galápagos Archipelago is at the forefront of the Anthropocene, facing intensifying pressures from its growing human footprint and accelerated global connectivity. Despite this, little is currently known of its chemical landscape. This review critically examines the drivers, sources, distribution and fate of oil, plastics, pesticides, persistent organic pollutants and heavy metals in the Galápagos Marine Reserve, identifying pollutant hotspots and evaluating rapid assessment methods and sentinel species that could aid regional monitoring. The cumulative influence of the Galápagos' equatorial position amongst major (and seasonally variable) atmospheric and oceanic circulation patterns, along with its distinctive geophysical and environmental conditions, such as extreme UV radiation and precipitation, likely exacerbates the archipelagos susceptibility to chemicals from both local and continental inputs. Point and diffuse sources identified include wastewater/effluent discharge, agricultural run-off, mismanaged waste, recreational boating, commercial shipping and industrial fishing. Limited spatiotemporal monitoring has hindered the identification of pollution hotspots, except for harbours as aggregates for maritime activities and urban run-off, and eastern-facing coastlines exposed to the Humboldt Current as plastic accumulation zones. Furthermore, the remote nature and vital protected status of the Galápagos National Park has constrained comprehensive assessment of chemical toxicity and its impacts on marine species across the reserve, with studies primarily restricted to Galápagos pinnipeds. Thus, there is currently insufficient knowledge to determine the extent to which the widespread but sporadic presence of chemical contaminants threatens the resilience and adaptive capacity of Galápagos' complex ecosystems, unique biodiversity and interconnected environmental processes. Future efforts are recommended to strengthen environmental monitoring and chemical risk assessment through the utilisation of rapid assessment tools and regional sentinel species, enhancing fundamental understanding of the chemical landscape in this global conservation Hope Spot, as well as the wider implications of the Anthropocene on diverse, dynamic and remote island ecosystems.

Macrolitter and microplastics along the East Pacific coasts - A homemade problem needing local solutions.

The East Pacific (EP) region, especially the central and southern EP, has been fairly less studied than other world's regions with respect to marine litter pollution. This comprehensive literature review (257 peer-reviewed publications) showed that both macrolitter (mostly plastics) and microplastics tend to accumulate on EP shorelines. Moreover, they were also reported in all the other compartments investigated: sea surface, water column, seafloor and 'others'. Mostly local, land-based sources (e.g., tourism, poor waste management) were identified across the region, especially at continental sites from low and mid latitudes. Some sea-based sources (e.g., fisheries, long-distance drifting) were also identified at high latitudes and on oceanic islands, likely enhanced by the oceanographic dynamics of the EP that affect transport of floating litter. Our results suggest that effective solutions to the problem require local and preventive strategies to significantly reduce the levels of litter along the EP coasts.

Sea surface microplastics in the Galapagos: Grab samples reveal high concentrations of particles <200 µm in size.

Plastic pollution in the oceans is increasing, yet most global sea surface data is collected using plankton nets which limits our knowledge of the smaller and more bioaccessible size fraction of microplastics (<5 mm). We sampled the biodiverse coastal waters of the Galapagos Island of San Cristobal, comparing two different microplastic sampling methodologies; 1 l whole seawater grab samples filtered to 1.2 µm and sea surface plankton tows with a net mesh size of 200 µm. Our data reveal high concentrations of microplastics in Galapagos coastal waters surrounding the urban area, averaging 11.5 ± 1.48 particles l-1, with a four-order of magnitude increase in microplastic abundance observed using grab sampling compared with 200 µm plankton nets. This increase was greater when including anthropogenic cellulose particles, averaging 19.8 ± 1.86 particles l-1. Microplastic and anthropogenic cellulose particles smaller than 200 µm comprised 44 % of the particles from grab samples, suggesting previous estimates of microplastic pollution based on plankton nets likely miss and therefore underestimate these smaller particles. The particle characteristics and distribution of these smaller particles points strongly to a local input of cellulosic fibres in addition to the microplastic particles transported longer distances via the Humbolt current found across the surface seawater of the Galapagos. Improving our understanding of particle characteristics and distributions to highlight likely local sources will facilitate the development of local mitigation and management plans to reduce the input and impacts of microplastics to marine species, not just in the Galapagos but globally.

Microplastic burden in marine benthic invertebrates depends on species traits and feeding ecology within biogeographical provinces.

The microplastic body burden of marine animals is often assumed to reflect levels of environmental contamination, yet variations in feeding ecology and regional trait expression could also affect a species' risk of contaminant uptake. Here, we explore the global inventory of individual microplastic body burden for invertebrate species inhabiting marine sediments across 16 biogeographic provinces. We show that individual microplastic body burden in benthic invertebrates cannot be fully explained by absolute levels of microplastic contamination in the environment, because interspecific differences in behaviour and feeding ecology strongly determine microplastic uptake. Our analyses also indicate a degree of species-specific particle selectivity; likely associated with feeding biology. Highest microplastic burden occurs in the Yellow and Mediterranean Seas and, contrary to expectation, amongst omnivores, predators, and deposit feeders rather than suspension feeding species. Our findings highlight the inadequacy of microplastic uptake risk assessments based on inventories of environmental contamination alone, and the need to understand how species behaviour and trait expression covary with microplastic contamination.

Microplastic distribution and composition on two Galápagos island beaches, Ecuador: Verifying the use of citizen science derived data in long-term monitoring.

Monitoring beach plastic contamination across space and time is necessary for understanding its sources and ecological effects, and for guiding mitigation. This is logistically and financially challenging, especially for microplastics. Citizen science represents an option for sampling accessible sites to support long term monitoring, but challenges persist around data validation. Here we test a simple citizen science methodology to monitor visible microplastic contamination on sandy beaches using a standard quadrat unit (50 cm × 50 cm x 5 cm depth) sieved to 1 mm, to support the analysis of microplastic on two islands within the marine protected area of the Galápagos Archipelago, Ecuador (San Cristóbal and Santa Cruz islands). High school and university students undertook supervised sampling of two beaches in 2019-2020 collecting over 7000 particles. A sub-sample of the suspected microplastics collected (n = 2,213, ∼30% total) were analysed using FTIR spectrometry, confirming 93% of particles >1 mm visually identified by students were microplastics or rubber, validating this method as a crowd-sourced indicator for microplastic contamination. These data provide important insights into the plastic contamination of Galápagos, revealing plastic abundances of 0-2524 particles m-2 over the two beaches (the highest reported in Galápagos). Strong accumulation gradients were measured parallel to the waterline at Punta Pitt (San Cristobal island) and perpendicular to the waterline at Tortuga Bay (Santa Cruz island), where four-fold higher concentrations were recorded at the sea turtle nesting habitat on the back-beach dune. No significant seasonal trends were measured during one year. These results demonstrate the value of citizen science in filling spatiotemporal knowledge gaps of beach contamination to support intervention design and conservation.

Uptake of microplastics by the snakelocks anemone (Anemonia viridis) is commonplace across environmental conditions.

Microplastics (<1 mm) are ubiquitous in our oceans and widely acknowledged as concerning contaminants due to the multi-faceted threats they exert on marine organisms and ecosystems. Anthozoans, including sea anemones and corals, are particularly at risk of microplastic uptake due to their proximity to the coastline, non-selective feeding mechanisms and sedentary nature. Here, the common snakelocks anemone (Anemonia viridis) was used to generate understanding of microplastic uptake in the relatively understudied Anthozoa class. A series of microplastic exposure and multi-stressor experiments were performed to examine particle shape and size selectivity, and to test for the influence of food availability and temperature on microplastic uptake. All A. viridis individuals were found to readily take up microplastics (mean 142.1 ± 83.4 particles per gram of tissue) but exhibited limited preference between different particle shapes and sizes (n = 32). Closer examination identified that uptake involved both ingestion and external tissue adhesion, where microplastics were trapped in secreted mucus. Microplastic uptake in A. viridis was not influenced by the presence of food or elevated water temperature (n = 40). Furthermore, environmental sampling was performed to investigate microplastic uptake in A. viridis (n = 8) on the coast of southwest England, with a mean of 17.5 ± 4.0 particles taken up per individual. Fibres represented the majority of particles (91%) followed by fragments (9%), with 87% either clear, blue or black in colour. FTIR analysis identified 70% of the particles as anthropogenic cellulosic or plastic polymers. Thus, this study provides evidence of microplastic uptake by A. viridis in both laboratory exposures experiments and in the marine environment. These findings support recent literature suggesting that external adhesion may be the primary mechanism in which anthozoans capture microplastics from the water column and highlights the potential role anemones can play as environmental microplastic bioindicators.