RESUMEN
Urbanization in Sub-Saharan Africa requires vast quantities of sand to meet infrastructural demands. In Accra, Ghana, sand mining occurs predominantly on farmlands at the city's periphery. We selected three study communities to assess the effects of sand mining on agriculture using interviews with local farmers and soil analyses of mined and unmined fields. The results underscore the profound repercussions of sand mining on farmers, characterized by substantial agricultural land loss, the destruction of food crops, and the absence of compensation payments or land reclamation. The study further reveals a significant decline in soil fertility of mined fields compared to unmined fields as evidenced by reduced levels of carbon (C, by 6.3 g kg-1) and macronutrients (nitrogen (N, by 0.6 g kg-1), phosphorus (P, 12.7 mg kg-1), potassium (K, 77 mg kg-1) and magnesium (Mg, 88 mg kg-1)), and an increase in soil compaction (bulk density by 0.13 g cm-3 and penetration resistance by 0.11 MPa). Soil texture and pH were altered and sodium (Na, by 16 mg kg-1) and soil moisture (by 4%) increased. On a communal level, sand mining adversely affected water availability, road infrastructure, and the health of residents. The study fills research gaps on the effects of sand mining on agricultural productivity, soil fertility and livelihoods, emphasizing the urgent need for effective regulation, law enforcement and collaboration as well as compensation and land reclamation mechanisms to limit the adverse impacts of sand mining on ecosystem services. Further, the use of more sustainable building materials should be fostered to reduce the demand for sand in Ghana.
RESUMEN
This article is one of three synthesis reports resulting from an integrated assessment (IA) of artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) in Ghana. Given the complexities that involve multiple drivers and diverse disciplines influencing ASGM, an IA framework was used to analyze economic, social, health, and environmental data and to co-develop evidence-based responses in collaboration with pertinent stakeholders. We look at both micro- and macro-economic processes surrounding ASGM, including causes, challenges, and consequences. At the micro-level, social and economic evidence suggests that the principal reasons whereby most people engage in ASGM involve "push" factors aimed at meeting livelihood goals. ASGM provides an important source of income for both proximate and distant communities, representing a means of survival for impoverished farmers as well as an engine for small business growth. However, miners and their families often end up in a "poverty trap" of low productivity and indebtedness, which reduce even further their economic options. At a macro level, Ghana's ASGM activities contribute significantly to the national economy even though they are sometimes operating illegally and at a disadvantage compared to large-scale industrial mining companies. Nevertheless, complex issues of land tenure, social stability, mining regulation and taxation, and environmental degradation undermine the viability and sustainability of ASGM as a livelihood strategy. Although more research is needed to understand these complex relationships, we point to key findings and insights from social science and economics research that can guide policies and actions aimed to address the unique challenges of ASGM in Ghana and elsewhere.