The impact of insect herbivory on biogeochemical cycling in broadleaved forests varies with temperature.

Herbivorous insects alter biogeochemical cycling within forests, but the magnitude of these impacts, their global variation, and drivers of this variation remain poorly understood. To address this knowledge gap and help improve biogeochemical models, we established a global network of 74 plots within 40 mature, undisturbed broadleaved forests. We analyzed freshly senesced and green leaves for carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and silica concentrations, foliar production and herbivory, and stand-level nutrient fluxes. We show more nutrient release by insect herbivores at non-outbreak levels in tropical forests than temperate and boreal forests, that these fluxes increase strongly with mean annual temperature, and that they exceed atmospheric deposition inputs in some localities. Thus, background levels of insect herbivory are sufficiently large to both alter ecosystem element cycling and influence terrestrial carbon cycling. Further, climate can affect interactions between natural populations of plants and herbivores with important consequences for global biogeochemical cycles across broadleaved forests.

Variability in seed salinity tolerance in an island coastal community.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Islands, with their long coastlines and increased vulnerability to sea level rise, offer compelling opportunities to investigate the salinity tolerance of coastal plants. Seeds are generally more vulnerable than other plant stages to increased stressors. The aim of this study was to characterize salinity tolerance during germination across a diverse pool of 21 species from 14 plant families found in coastal communities throughout the Hawaiian Islands in order to increase our general understanding of coastal plant ecology for conservation and restoration. METHODS: Seeds of each species were exposed to unfiltered/untreated seawater (35 ppt total salinity) and two salinity treatments (10 and 20 ppt) in which the seawater was diluted with distilled water, and germination percent and timing were compared to seeds in a distilled water control. Non-germinated seeds were then tested for recovery germination. We quantified and compared germination percent, time and recovery among species and across salinity levels and tested for heterogeneity related to seed size, dormancy class, habit and threatened status. KEY RESULTS: Although salinity tolerance varied considerably among species, salinity exposure generally reduced and delayed germination. The greatest effects were detected at higher salinity levels. Recovery germination overall was higher for seeds that had been exposed to higher salinity. None of the factors we explored emerged as predictors of salinity tolerance except seed mass, which tended to enhance germination at higher salinity. CONCLUSIONS: Species responses to salinity exposure indicate high vulnerability of coastal systems to increased salinity stress, and variability among species could lead to shifts in community assembly and composition under sea level rise. These results can help guide coastal ecosystem conservation and restoration management decisions in the face of climate change.

Supporting long-term sustainability of ex situ collections using a pedigree-based population management approach.

Premise: Living collections maintained for generations are at risk of diversity loss, inbreeding, and adaptation to cultivation. To address these concerns, the zoo community uses pedigrees to track individuals and implement crosses that maximize founder contributions and minimize inbreeding. Using a pedigree management approach, we demonstrate how conducting strategic crosses can minimize genetic issues that have arisen under current practices. Methods: We performed crosses between collections and compared progeny fitness, including plant performance and reproductive health. We genotyped the progeny and parental accessions to measure changes in diversity and relatedness within and between accessions. Results: The mean relatedness values among individuals within each accession suggest they are full siblings, demonstrating that there was high inbreeding and low diversity within accessions, although less so among accessions. Progeny from the wider crosses had increased genetic diversity and were larger and more fertile, while self-pollinated accessions were smaller and less fertile. Discussion: Institutions that hold exceptional species should consider how diversity is maintained within their collections. Implementing a pedigree-based approach to managing plant reproduction ex situ will slow the inevitable loss of genetic diversity and, in turn, result in healthier collections.

Extinction risk of the endemic vascular flora of Kauai, Hawaii, based on IUCN assessments.

The International Union for Conservation of Nature's Red List of Threatened Species (IUCN Red List) is the world's most comprehensive information source on the global conservation status of species. Governmental agencies and conservation organizations increasingly rely on IUCN Red List assessments to develop conservation policies and priorities. Funding agencies use the assessments as evaluation criteria, and researchers use meta-analysis of red-list data to address fundamental and applied conservation science questions. However, the circa 143,000 IUCN assessments represent a fraction of the world's biodiversity and are biased in regional and organismal coverage. These biases may affect conservation priorities, funding, and uses of these data to understand global patterns. Isolated oceanic islands are characterized by high endemicity, but the unique biodiversity of many islands is experiencing high extinction rates. The archipelago of Hawaii has one of the highest levels of endemism of any floristic region; 90% of its 1367 native vascular plant taxa are classified as endemic. We used the IUCN's assessment of the complete single-island endemic (SIE) vascular plant flora of Kauai, Hawaii, to assess the proportion and drivers of decline of threatened plants in an oceanic island setting. We compared the IUCN assessments with federal, state, and other local assessments of Kauai species or taxa of conservation concern. Finally, we conducted a preliminary assessment for all 1044 native vascular plants of Hawaii based on IUCN criterion B by estimating area of occupancy, extent of occurrence, and number of locations to determine whether the pattern found for the SIE vascular flora of Kauai is comparable to the native vascular flora of the Hawaiian Islands. We compared our results with patterns observed for assessments of other floras. According to IUCN, 256 SIE vascular plant taxa are threatened with extinction and 5% are already extinct. This is the highest extinction risk reported for any flora to date. The preliminary assessment of the native vascular flora of Hawaii showed that 72% (753 taxa) is threatened. The flora of Hawaii may be one of the world's most threatened; thus, increased and novel conservation measures in the state and on other remote oceanic islands are urgently needed.

La Lista Roja de la Unión Internacional para la Conservación de la Naturaleza (Lista Roja UICN) es la fuente más completa a nivel mundial de información sobre el estado de conservación de las especies. Las agencias gubernamentales y las organizaciones para la conservación dependen cada vez más de las valoraciones en esta lista para desarrollar sus políticas y prioridades de conservación; también los organismos de financiamiento usan las valoraciones como criterios de evaluación y los investigadores aplican metaanálisis a los datos de la lista para abordar preguntas fundamentales y aplicadas a las ciencias de la conservación. Sin embargo, las casi 143,000 valoraciones de la UICN representan sólo una fracción de la biodiversidad mundial y están sesgadas en cuanto a la cobertura regional y de organismos. Estos sesgos pueden afectar a las prioridades de conservación, al financiamiento y al uso de estos datos para entender los patrones globales. Las islas oceánicas aisladas se caracterizan por un alto endemismo, aunque la biodiversidad única de muchas de estas islas está experimentando un índice elevado de extinciones. El archipiélago de Hawái tiene uno de los niveles más altos de endemismo de cualquier región florística con el 90% de los 1,367 taxones nativos de flora vascular clasificado como endémico. Usamos las valoraciones de la UICN para todas las plantas vasculares endémicas de una sola isla (ESI) en Kauai, Hawái, para evaluar la proporción y los impulsores de la declinación de plantas amenazadas en el entorno de una isla oceánica. Comparamos las valoraciones de la UICN con las federales, estatales y otras valoraciones locales de las especies o taxones de Kauai que son de importancia para la conservación. Por último, realizamos una valoración preliminar para las 1,044 especies de plantas vasculares nativas de Hawái con base en el criterio B de la UICN mediante la estimación del área de ocupación, la extensión de la ocurrencia y el número de localidades para determinar si el patrón hallado para la flora vascular ESI de Kauai es comparable con la flora vascular nativa de las islas hawaianas. Comparamos nuestros resultados con los patrones observados en las valoraciones de otras floras. De acuerdo con la UICN, el 95% de los taxones de plantas vasculares ESI de Kauai están amenazadas y el 5% ya se encuentra extinto. A la fecha, este es el riesgo de extinción más alto reportado para cualquier flora. La valoración preliminar de la flora vascular nativa de Hawái mostró que el 72% (753 taxones) se encuentra amenazado. La flora de Hawái puede ser una de las más amenazadas a nivel mundial; por lo tanto, se necesitan urgentemente medidas novedosas e incrementadas en el estado y en otras islas oceánicas remotas.

Applying the zoo model to conservation of threatened exceptional plant species.

Maintaining a living plant collection is the most common method of ex situ conservation for plant species that cannot be seed banked (i.e., exceptional species). Viability of living collections, and their value for future conservation efforts, can be limited without coordinated efforts to track and manage individuals across institutions. Using a pedigree-focused approach, the zoological community has established an inter-institutional infrastructure to support long-term viability of captive animal populations. We assessed the ability of this coordinated metacollection infrastructure to support the conservation of 4 plant species curated in living collections at multiple botanic gardens around the world. Limitations in current practices include the inability to compile, share, and analyze plant collections data at the individual level, as well as difficulty in tracking original provenance of ex situ material. The coordinated metacollection framework used by zoos can be adopted by the botanical community to improve conservation outcomes by minimizing the loss of genetic diversity in collections. We suggest actions to improve ex situ conservation of exceptional plant species, including developing a central database to aggregate data and track unique individuals of priority threatened species among institutions and adapting a pedigree-based population management tool that incorporates life-history aspects unique to plants. If approached collaboratively across regional, national, and global scales, these actions could transform ex situ conservation of threatened plant species.

Aplicación del Modelo Zoológico a la Conservación de Especies Excepcionales de Plantas Amenazadas Resumen El mantenimiento de una colección de plantas vivas es el método más común para de conservación ex situ para especies de plantas que no pueden almacenarse en bancos de semillas (i. e., especies excepcionales). La viabilidad de las colecciones vivientes, junto con el valor que representan para los futuros esfuerzo de conservación, puede estar limitada si no existen esfuerzos coordinados para rastrear y manejar a los individuos entre las instituciones. Mediante una estrategia enfocada en el linaje, la comunidad de zoológicos ha establecido una infraestructura interinstitucional que respalda la viabilidad a largo plazo de las poblaciones de animales en cautiverio. Evaluamos la habilidad de esta infraestructura coordinada de metacolecciones para apoyar en la conservación de cuatro especies de plantas curadas en colecciones vivientes en varios jardines botánicos de todo el mundo. Las limitaciones de las prácticas contemporáneas incluyen la incapacidad de recopilar, compartir y analizar los datos de las colecciones de plantas a nivel individual, así como la dificultad de rastrear la procedencia original del material ex situ. El marco de trabajo de metacolecciones coordinadas que utilizan los zoológicos puede ser adoptado por la comunidad botánica para mejorar los resultados de conservación al minimizar la pérdida de la diversidad genética que ocurre en las colecciones. Sugerimos acciones que aumenten la conservación ex situ de las especies excepcionales de plantas. Estas acciones incluyen el desarrollo de una base de datos central para acumular datos y rastrear entre las instituciones a los individuos únicos de las especies amenazadas prioritarias y la adaptación de una herramienta de manejo poblacional basada en el linaje que incorpore los aspectos únicos de la historia de vida de las plantas. Si estas acciones se plantean colaborativamente a escala regional, nacional y global, podrían transformar la conservación ex situ de las especies amenazadas de plantas.