Suspended particulate matter-biofilm aggregates benefit microcystin removal in turbulent water but trigger toxicity toward Daphnia magna.

Suspended particulate matter (SPM) and biofilm are critical in removing contaminants in aquatic environments, but the environmental behavior and ecological toxicity of SPM-biofilm aggregates modulated by turbulence intensities are largely unknown. This study determined the removal pathways of microcystin-LR (MC-LR) by SPM and its biofilm under different turbulence intensities (2.25 × 10-3, 1.01 × 10-2, and 1.80 × 10-2 m2/s3). Then, we evaluated the toxicity of SPM-biofilm aggregates to Daphnia magna. The results revealed that SPM contributed to the adsorption of MC-LR, and the removal of MC-LR can be accelerated with biofilm formation on SPM, with 95.66 % to 97.45 % reduction in MC-LR concentration under the studied turbulence intensities. Higher turbulence intensity triggered more frequent contact of SPM and MC-LR, formed compact but smaller clusters of SPM-biofilm aggregates, and enhanced the abundance of mlrA and mlrB; thus benefiting the adsorption, biosorption, and biodegradation of MC-LR. Furthermore, the SPM-biofilm aggregates formed in turbulent water triggered oxidative stress to Daphnia magna, while a weak lethal toxic effect was identified under moderate turbulence intensity. The results indicate that the toxicity of SPM-biofilm aggregates fail to display a linear relationship with turbulence intensity. These findings offer new perspectives on understanding the environmental behavior and ecological outcomes of SPM and its biofilms in turbulent aquatic environments.

Revealing the environmental hazard posed by biodegradable microplastics in aquatic ecosystems: An investigation of polylactic acid's effects on Microcystis aeruginosa.

The influence of petroleum-based microplastics (MPs) on phytoplankton has been extensively studied, while research on the impact of biodegradable MPs, derived from alternative plastics to contest the environmental crisis, remains limited. This study performed a 63 days co-incubation experiment to assess the effect of polylactic acid MPs (PLA-MPs) on the growth, physiology, and carbon utilization of M. aeruginosa and the change in PLA-MPs surface properties. The results showed that despite PLA-MPs induced oxidative stress and caused membrane damage in M. aeruginosa, the presence of PLA-MPs (10, 50, and 200 mg/L) triggered significant increases (p < 0.05) in the density of M. aeruginosa after 63 days. Specifically, the algal densities upon 50 and 200 mg/L PLA-MPs exposure were increased by 20.91% and 36.31% relative to the control, respectively. Meanhwhile, the reduced C/O ratio on PLA-MPs surface and change in PLA-MPs morphological characterization, which is responsible for substantially increase in the aquatic dissolved inorganic carbon concentration during the co-incubation, implying the degradation of PLA-MPs; thus, provided sufficient carbon resources that M. aeruginosa could assimilate. This was in line with the declined intracellular carbonic anhydrase content in M. aeruginosa. This study is the first attempt to uncover the interaction between PLA-MPs and M. aeruginosa, and the finding that their interaction promotes the degrading of PLA-MPs meanwhile favoring M. aeruginosa growth will help elucidate the potential risk of biodegradable MPs in aquatic environment.

Graphidessajinfoensis, a new species of longhorned beetle (Coleoptera, Cerambycidae, Lamiinae, Desmiphorini) from China.

Graphidessajinfoensissp. nov. is described from Chongqing and Guizhou in Southwest China. The diagnostic morphological characters of the new species are described and illustrated in color plates. The distribution of all species of the genus Graphidessa Bates, 1884 is mapped and the key to all species of this genus is updated. The COI gene sequence of the new species is also provided.

Size-focused conservation may fail to protect the world's oldest trees.

Old trees are irreplaceable natural resources that provide multifaceted benefits to humans. Current conservation strategies focus primarily on large-sized trees that were often considered old. However, some studies have demonstrated that small trees can be more than thousands of years old, suggesting that conventional size-focused perceptions may hamper the efficiency of current conservation strategies for old trees. Here, we compiled paired age and diameter data using tree-ring records sampled from 121,918 trees from 269 species around the world to detect whether tree size is a strong predictor of age for old trees and whether the spatial distribution of small old trees differs from that of large old trees. We found that tree size was a weak predictor of age for old trees, and diameter explained only 10% of the total age variance of old trees. Unlike large-sized trees that are mainly in warm, wet environments and protected, small old trees are predominantly in cold, dry environments and mostly unprotected, indicating that size-focused conservation failed to protect some of the oldest trees. To conserve old trees, comprehensive old-tree recognition systems are needed that consider not only tree size but also age and external characteristics. Protected areas designed for small old trees are urgently needed.

Herbaceous ornamental plants with conspicuous aesthetic traits contribute to plant invasion risk in subtropical urban parks.

Global ornamental horticulture is a major pathway for plant invasions, while urban parks are key areas for introducing non-native ornamental plants. To react appropriately to the challenges (e.g., biological invasion issues) and opportunities (e.g., urban ecosystem services) of herbaceous ornamentals in urban parks, we conducted a comprehensive invasive risk assessment in 363 urban parks in Chongqing, a subtropical city in China. The results found more than 1/3 of the 119 non-native species recorded in urban parks had a high invasion risk, and more than five species had potential invasion risk in 96.29% of the study area, indicating herbaceous ornamentals in urban parks are potentially a pool of invasive species that deserves attention. Moreover, humans have chosen herbaceous ornamentals with more aesthetic characteristics in urban parks, where exotic species were more prominent than native species in floral traits, such as more conspicuous flowers and longer flowering periods. The findings can inform urban plant management, provide an integrated approach to assessing herbaceous ornamentals' invasion risk, and offer insights into understanding the filtering effects of human aesthetic preferences.

Microcystins-Loaded Aged Nanoplastics Provoke a Metabolic Shift in Human Liver Cells.

Studies concerning the toxicity of pollutant-loaded nanoplastics (NPs) toward humans are still in their infancy. Here, we evaluated the adsorption of microcystins (MCs) by pristine and aged polystyrene nanoplastics (PSNPs), prepared MCs-loaded aged PSNPS (1, 5, 10, 15, and 19 µg/mg), and systematically mapped the key molecular changes induced by aged and MCs-loaded PSNPs to human hepatoblastoma (HepG2) cells. According to the results, MC-LR adsorption is increased 2.64-fold by aging, and PSNP accumulation is detected in HepG2 cells. The cytotoxicity of the MC-LR-loaded aged PSNPs showed a positive relationship with the MC-LR amount, as the cell viability in the 19 µg/mg loading treatment (aPS-MC19) was 10.84% lower than aged PSNPs; meanwhile, more severe oxidative damage was observed. Primary approaches involved stressing the endoplasmic reticulum and reducing protein synthesis that the aged PSNPs posed for HepG2 cells, while the aggravated cytotoxicity in aPS-MC19 treatment was a combined result of the metabolic energy disorder, oxidative damage, endoplasmic reticulum stress, and downregulation of the MC-LR target protein. Our results confirm that the aged PSNPs could bring more MC-LR into the HepG2 cells, significantly interfere with biological processes, and provide new insight into deciphering the risk of NPs to humans.

Tree seedling growth allocation of Castanopsis kawakamii is determined by seed-relative positions.

Plants allocate growth to different organs as a strategy to obtain limiting resources in different environments. Tree seeds that fall from a mother tree settle on, within, or below the forest floor and litter layer, and their relative positions can determine seedling biomass and nutrient allocation and ultimately affect survival to the sapling stage. However, how emerged seedling biomass and nutrients of each organ are affected by seeds in different positions is not yet completely understood in subtropical forests. Therefore, an experiment was conducted with seeds positioned above the litter layers of different thicknesses, on the forest floor, and beneath the litter layer, and the influences of seed position on biomass allocation and nutrient use efficiency of emerged seedlings of Castanopsis kawakamii was examined. The aim of the study was to determine the optimal seed position to promote regeneration. Allocation strategies were well coordinated in the emerged seedlings from different seed positions. Seedlings from seeds positioned above litter layers of different thicknesses (~40 and 80 g of litter) allocated growth to leaf tissue at the expense of root tissue (lower root mass fraction) and increased nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) accumulation and nutrient use efficiency. Seedlings from seeds positioned beneath a deep litter layer allocated most growth to roots (high root: shoot ratio, root mass fraction) to capture available resources at the expense of leaf growth. Seedlings from seeds positioned on the forest floor allocated most growth to roots to obtain limiting resources. Further, we also found that these traits were clustered into three groups based on trait similarity, and the cumulative interpretation rate was 74.2%. Thus, seed relative positions significantly affected seedling growth by altering the allocation of resources to different organs. The different strategies indicated that root N:P ratios (entropy weight vector was 0.078) and P nutrient use efficiency were essential factors affecting seedling growth in the subtropical forest. Of the seed positions analyzed, beneath a moderate litter layer (~40 g of litter) was the most suitable position for the growth and survival of Castanopsis seedlings. In future studies, field and lab experiments will be combined to reveal the mechanisms underlying forest regeneration.

Altitudinal variations and seasonal dynamics of near-surface and soil temperatures in subtropical forests of Mt. Guanshan, Jiangxi Province, China.

Temperature lapse rate (TLR), measured as the degree of temperature change along an altitudinal gradient, is a key indicator of multiple ecological processes of mountain systems. Although many studies have examined temperature changes of open air or near-surface along altitudes, we know little about altitudinal variations of soil temperature, which play an important role in regulating growth and reproduction of organisms, as well as ecosystem nutrient cycling. Based on temperature data of near-surface (15 cm above ground) and soil layers (8 cm below ground) from 12 sampling sites of subtropical forest along an altitudinal gradient (300-1300 m) in Jiangxi Guan-shan National Nature Reserve from September 2018 to August 2021, we calculated the lapse rates of mean, maximum, and minimum temperatures, as well as accumulated temperatures by using simple linear regression for both near-surface and soil temperature. The seasonal dynamics of aforementioned variables were also evaluated. The results showed that there were large differences among mean, maximum, and minimum lapse rates for annual near-surface temperature, which were 0.38, 0.31 and 0.51 ℃·(100 m)-1, respectively. But little variation was documented for soil temperature which were 0.40, 0.38 and 0.42 ℃·(100 m)-1, respectively. The seasonal variations of temperature lapse rates for near-surface and soil layers were minor except for minimum temperature. The lapse rates of minimum temperature were deeper in spring and winter for near-surface and in spring and autumn for soil layers. For growing degree days (GDD), the accumulated temperature under both layers were negatively correlated with altitude, and the lapse rates of ≥5 ℃ were 163 ℃·d·(100 m)-1 for near-surface and 179 ℃·d·(100 m)-1 for soil. The ≥5 ℃ GDD in soil were about 15 days longer than that in near-surface at the same altitude. The results showed inconsistent patterns of altitudinal variations between near-surface and soil temperature. Soil temperature and its lapse rates had minor seasonal variations compared with the near-surface counterparts, which was related to the strong buffering capacity of soil.

Human activities and species biological traits drive the long-term persistence of old trees in human-dominated landscapes.

Old trees have many ecological and socio-cultural values. However, knowledge of the factors influencing their long-term persistence in human-dominated landscapes is limited. Here, using an extensive database (nearly 1.8 million individual old trees belonging to 1,580 species) from China, we identified which species were most likely to persist as old trees in human-dominated landscapes and where they were most likely to occur. We found that species with greater potential height, smaller leaf size and diverse human utilization attributes had the highest probability of long-term persistence. The persistence probabilities of human-associated species (taxa with diverse human utilization attributes) were relatively high in intensively cultivated areas. Conversely, the persistence probabilities of spontaneous species (taxa with no human utilization attributes and which are not cultivated) were relatively high in mountainous areas or regions inhabited by ethnic minorities. The distinctly different geographic patterns of persistence probabilities of the two groups of species were related to their dissimilar responses to heterogeneous human activities and site conditions. A small number of human-associated species dominated the current cohort of old trees, while most spontaneous species were rare and endemic. Our study revealed the potential impacts of human activities on the long-term persistence of trees and the associated shifts in species composition in human-dominated landscapes.

Controlling internal nutrients loading at low temperature using oxygen-loading zeolite and submerged macrophytes enhances environmental resilience to subsequent high temperature.

Nutrients releasing from anoxic sediment can be enhanced in summer because the dissolved oxygen (DO) consumption, nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) migration are susceptible to temperature. Herein, we proposed a method to hinder the aquatic environmental deterioration in warm seasons through consecutive application of oxygen- and lanthanum-modified zeolite (LOZ) and submerged macrophytes (V. natans) at low temperature scenario (5 °C, with depleted DO in water), and the effect was examined with drastic increasing the ambient temperature to 30 °C. The investigation was conducted in a microcosm scale including sediment cores (with a diameter of 11 cm, height of 10 cm) and overlying water (with depth of 35 cm). During the 60 days experiment, application of LOZ at 5 °C facilitated slower releasing and diffusion of oxygen from LOZ and the growth of V. natans. Thereby, when the temperature was increased to 30 °C and maintained for 35 days, the DO reached 10.01 mg/L, and the release of P and N from the sediment was reduced by 86% and 92%, respectively. This was achieved from the joint efforts of adsorption, biological conversion, chemical inactivation, and assimilation. Also, the LOZ inhibited 80% N2O, 75% CH4, and 70% CO2 emissions primary by promoting V. natans growth and reshaping microbiota. Meanwhile, the colonization of V. natans benefited the sustainable improvement in the water quality. Our results addressed the time that the remediation of anoxic sediment can be applied.

Potential disintegration and transport of biochar in the soil-water environment: A case study towards purple soil.

Biochar has been widely applied in soil and water. However, the fate and transport of biochar are not yet fully understood. Here, biochar's disintegration, transport, and the effect of temperature on biochar transport in soil (purple soil)-water systems were investigated. The results showed that the potentially transportable components (PTC) of biochar for corn straw, wheat straw, rice straw, rice husk and wood biochar reached 6.22-7.60%, 5.96-12.29%, 11.77-12.45%, 5.34-6.26% and 5.08-6.14% by mass, respectively. An external force (ultrasound exposure) intensified the physical disintegration, including colloidal and nanoparticles from larger particles, thereby increasing the transport potential. The mass recovery rates of PTC for rice straw biochar after penetrating through soil at 5, 20 and 35 °C reached 44.25%, 32.97% and 10.98%, respectively, which was supported by the Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek (DLVO) theory results. Elevated temperatures increased the hydrodynamic average diameter of PTC, and the Zeta potential of PTC and soil at 35 °C were less negative than those at 5 and 20 °C. As a result, biochar's transportability decreases with increasing temperature in the soil-water system, during which the enhanced PTC aggregation and the decreased electrostatic repulsion between biochar and soil particles played a crucial role. The increase in electrical conductivity in the soil-water system may be the main reason for the decrease in electrostatic repulsion at higher temperatures. The findings are helpful for an in-depth understanding of the environmental fate and managing the transport risk of biochar.

Characterizing composition profile and diversity patterns of spontaneous urban plants across China's major cities.

Spontaneous urban plants (SUPs) constitute an important component of urban vegetation, but they have received less attention in urban biodiversity and ecological research, especially at the regional scale. We comprehensively reviewed the occurrence records of SUPs in 59 major cities across China's geographical regions. We systematically analyzed floristic composition profiles and diversity patterns of SUPs at the regional scale and explored their influencing factors. The study identified 1211 SUP species through an extensive search of existing field research studies and fieldwork. The species composition pattern of SUPs, displaying a spatial association with climatic zones, was mainly affected by climatic factors and also anthropogenic factors. At different geographic scales, the life-form characteristics revealed some patterns, with more diverse perennials at the regional scale. The abundance of SUPs and the high proportion of native species suggested that limited urban habitats can still contribute to the enrichment and accumulation of urban biodiversity. However, in the context of globalization, continual species exchanges between neighboring regions at different scales may significantly exacerbate urban-biota homogenization. In conclusion, our study provided a regional-scale case of a synoptic SUP profile. The results furnished a scientific basis for understanding the general patterns of SUPs. The findings could inform sustainable solutions for urban ecological planning and management of spontaneous nature in cities.

Microplastics benefit bacteria colonization and induce microcystin degradation.

Microplastics (MPs) can sorb toxic substances and be colonized by microorganisms. However, the interactions between the adsorbed toxic substances and the MPs biofilm remains inadequately understood. Here, a 37-days microcosm experiment was conducted to investigate the influence of polystyrene microplastics (PS-MPs) on microcystin (MC-LR) behavior in turbulent scenarios. The results revealed that adsorption by PS-MPs was the primary process that led to a quick reduction of aquatic MC-LR concentrations. With the colonization of microorganisms on the PS-MPs, the attached biofilm altered the surface properties of PS-MPs, which enhanced the bio-adsorption of MC-LR. Meanwhile, microcystins degrading bacteria, such as Sphingomonadaceae and Methylophilaceae, inhabited in the biofilm, which facilitated the MC-LR biodegradation; this was also demonstrated by the identified MC-LR degradation products. Thus, the MC-LR concentration in water was constantly decreased, with a maximum removal capability of 35.8% in PS-MPs added groups. In addition, a 25% reduction of MC-LR was recorded in PS-MPs added static water. This suggested that the interaction between PS-MPs, biofilm, and MC-LR may be prevalent in natural waters. Our results indicate MPs as vectors for toxic substances could be a double-edged sword (adsorption and biodegradation), which provides new insights for understanding the ecological risks of microplastics.

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The adaptation strategy of seedlings plays a decisive role in population regeneration. Machilus nanmu is a tree species belonging to Lauraceae, which is national class Ⅱ protected species and one of the dominant species in the evergreen broadleaved forest in Jinyun Mountain, Chongqing. Therefore, it is of great significance to understand the adaptation strategies of M. nanmu seedlings to maintain population regeneration and protect the biodiversity of evergreen broadleaved forest. We studied the temporal dynamics of early adaptation strategy of M. nanmu in Jinyun Mountain in Chongqing and its response to heterogeneous habitats from the perspective of morphology and biomass allocation. The seedlings of M. nanmu were classified into different age stages (stage 1: 1-3 a; stage 2: 4-6 a; stage 3: 7-9 a) under different canopy environments (gap/understory). Stem configurations (except branch angle) and leaf inclination angle of M. nanmu seedlings in the gap were significantly greater than understory at stages 2 and 3. Root configurations (except root diameter) and leaf area were significantly greater than that in the understory at stages 1 and 2. Specific leaf area in the gap was significantly smaller than understory at all three stages. Across all the conditions, biomass distribution was dominated by leaves. From the stage 2, stem biomass distribution of M. nanmu seedlings in the gap was increased, while root biomass distribution was decreased. There was no significant variation in root biomass of M. nanmu seedlings in the understory. The coordination among different organs of M. nanmu seedlings would help their adaptation to different habitats. Root and leaf of M. nanmu seedlings in the gap were significantly correlated, with the correlation changing from positive to negative as the age increased. While in the understory, there was significant positive correlation between root and stem, but no correlation between root and leaf. The slope of SMA equation of branch weight and branch length had significant difference under different canopy environments only at stage 3, while the slope of SMA equation of leaf and root biomass and configuration had no significant difference. Most of the SMA equation intercepts between biomass and configuration differed significantly at stage 2.

Urban growth drives trait composition of urban spontaneous plant communities in a mountainous city in China.

Urban ecosystems feature intense anthropogenic activities and environmental stressors that filter species with varying life-history traits. The traits therefore provide an essential aspect to understanding how species respond to urban environments. We conducted this study in Chongqing, a mountainous city in southwestern China, and tested the hypothesis that the velocity of urban growth can alter functional compositions of urban plant communities through selection on species' taxonomic distributions and functional traits. We found that for most traits, their values spanned a wide range across the 70 spontaneous species in this study, and seed size and leaf element composition played a key role in contributing to the functional differentiation among species. At the same time, urban growth intensity was negatively correlated with leaf N concentration, the N:P ratio, and specific leaf area (SLA), and positively correlated with the leaf C:N ratio. This suggests that species in urban centers are associated with an acquisitive nutrient-use strategy and may gain strong competitive strategies to be favored by greater selective pressure in those long-term urban centers. Lastly, we show that urbanization as a strong filter tends to reduce the chance of species with unique traits for the spontaneous plant communities. Our study offers insights into mechanisms through which spontaneous plant communities are filtered by urbanization with a special focus on the ecological consequences of the velocity of urban growth.

Potassium regulates cadmium toxicity in Microcystis aeruginosa.

Microcystis aeruginosa (M. aeruginosa) was found to be capable of cadmium (Cd2+) assimilation. Potassium (K+), an essential factor in transmembrane transport, can possibly manipulate the interaction between Cd2+ and M. aeruginosa. In this study, the effect of available K+ levels on Cd2+ toxicity in M. aeruginosa is examined. The results showed that the K+ level was positively linked with toxicity of Cd2+ to M. aeruginosa. And with respect to the M. aeruginosa incubated in K+ = 460 µM treatment, the release of extracellular polymeric substance was augmented, which benefited the retention of Cd2+ on the M. aeruginosa surface. In addition, the assimilation of Cd2+ showed a 3.42-fold increase in comparison to that without K+ supplement. Moreover, the enhanced K+ level caused the up-regulation of the Cd2+ transporting protein and down-regulation of the Cd2+ efflux protein, associated with the positive energy metabolism response. These results documented that the K+ availability could influence the toxicity of Cd2+ to M. aeruginosa jointly through the manipulation of Cd2+ assimilation, excretion, and the biological response. These findings may attach importance to the effects of K+ level on Cd2+ assimilation by M. aeruginosa and shed a degree of light on the enhanced Cd2+ removal using algal-based technology.

Short-term decline of Castanopsis fargesii adult trees promotes conspecific seedling regeneration: The complete process from seed production to seedling establishment.

Declining forests usually face uncertain regeneration dynamics and recovery trajectories, which are challenging to forest management. In this study, we investigated the decline pattern of Castanopsis fargesii and examined the effects on conspecific seedling regeneration. We found that 61.45% of adult individuals were in decline and the smaller DBH size classes of trees (10-40 cm) had a greater probability of decline. Most of the intermediate decline (94.52%) and nondecline individuals (95.23%) did not worsen, and the crowns of 21.91% of the intermediate decline trees were recovered during 2013-2018. Adult tree decline had a negative effect on seed production (mean mature seed density of nondecline, intermediate decline, and high decline individuals was 167.3, 63.3, and 2.1 seeds/m2, respectively), but no effect on key seed traits. The seed survival rate of declining trees was greater than that of nondeclining trees at both the seed production and seed dispersal stages. The seed to seedling transition rates in canopy gaps, decline habitats, and nondecline habitats were 7.94%, 9.47%, and 109.24%, respectively. The survival rate and height growth of newly germinated seedlings were positively correlated with the light condition, which was notably accelerated in the canopy gaps. Taken together, these results indicate that the reduction in seed production of some adult trees had a weakly negative effect on new seedling recruitment, while the improved environmental condition after the decline significantly enhanced the survival and growth of both advanced and new germinated seedlings. Looking at the overall life history, the short-term defoliation and mortality of some C. fargesii adult trees can be regarded as a natural forest disturbance that favors conspecific seedling regeneration. High-intensity management measures would be unnecessary in cases of an emerging intermediate decline in this forest.

Microplastics negatively affect soil fauna but stimulate microbial activity: insights from a field-based microplastic addition experiment.

Microplastics are recognized as an emerging contaminant worldwide. Although microplastics have been shown to strongly affect organisms in aquatic environments, less is known about whether and how microplastics can affect different taxa within a soil community, and it is unclear whether these effects can cascade through soil food webs. By conducting a microplastic manipulation experiment, i.e. adding low-density polyethylene fragments in the field, we found that microplastic addition significantly affected the composition and abundance of microarthropod and nematode communities. Contrary to soil fauna, we found only small effects of microplastics on the biomass and structure of soil microbial communities. Nevertheless, structural equation modelling revealed that the effects of microplastics strongly cascade through the soil food webs, leading to the modification of microbial functioning with further potential consequences on soil carbon and nutrient cycling. Our results highlight that taking into account the effects of microplastics at different trophic levels is important to elucidate the mechanisms underlying the ecological impacts of microplastic pollution on soil functioning.

An updated Vegetation Map of China (1:1000000).

Vegetation maps are important sources of information for biodiversity conservation, ecological studies, vegetation management and restoration, and national strategic decision making. The current Vegetation Map of China (1:1000000) was generated by a team of more than 250 scientists in an effort that lasted over 20 years starting in the 1980s. However, the vegetation distribution of China has experienced drastic changes during the rapid development of China in the last three decades, and it urgently needs to be updated to better represent the distribution of current vegetation types. Here, we describe the process of updating the Vegetation Map of China (1:1000000) generated in the 1980s using a "crowdsourcing-change detection-classification-expert knowledge" vegetation mapping strategy. A total of 203,024 field samples were collected, and 50 taxonomists were involved in the updating process. The resulting updated map has 12 vegetation type groups, 55 vegetation types/subtypes, and 866 vegetation formation/sub-formation types. The overall accuracy and kappa coefficient of the updated map are 64.8% and 0.52 at the vegetation type group level, 61% and 0.55 at the vegetation type/subtype level and 40% and 0.38 at the vegetation formation/sub-formation level. When compared to the original map, the updated map showed that 3.3 million km2 of vegetated areas of China have changed their vegetation type group during the past three decades due to anthropogenic activities and climatic change. We expect this updated map to benefit the understanding and management of China's terrestrial ecosystems.