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Plant-derived exosome-like nanovesicles (PDNVs) are small nanoscale vesicles containing lipids, RNAs, proteins and some plant natural products secreted by plant cells. Over the last decade, PDNVs have garnered significant interest due to its exceptional therapeutic benefits in the treatment of various diseases. Herbal medicine, as a medicinal plant, plays an important role in the treatment of diseases including cancer. Especially in recent years, the function of herbal medicine derived exosome-like nanovesicles (HMDNVs) in the treatment of cancer has been widely concerned, and has become a research hotspot of nanomedicine. In this review, the biological characteristics, functions and the therapeutic advantages of PDNVs are reviewed, as well as the recent achievements and research progress of HMDNVs in cancer treatment, demonstrating its enormous promise as a cancer therapy, and new insights are provided for future research and development of anti-tumor drugs.
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Exosomas , Neoplasias , Humanos , Exosomas/química , Neoplasias/tratamiento farmacológico , Nanomedicina , Animales , Plantas Medicinales/química , Medicina de Hierbas/métodos , Antineoplásicos/química , Antineoplásicos/farmacología , Antineoplásicos/uso terapéutico , Nanopartículas/químicaRESUMEN
Infection with influenza A virus (IAV) and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) poses a significant risk to human life, health, and the global economy. Vaccination is one of the most effective strategies in the fight against infectious viruses. In this study, we, for the first time, have evaluated the immunogenicity and protective effect of an influenza/SARS-CoV-2 Omicron subunit combined vaccine adjuvanted with MF59 and administered to BALB/c mice. Results showed that the combined vaccine induced high levels of IgG, IgG1 , and IgG2a antibodies, as well as influenza A H1N1/California/2009 virus-specific hemagglutination-inhibiting antibodies in BALB/c mice. Moreover, this subunit combined vaccine induced high titers of neutralization antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 Omicron sublineage BA.5 pseudovirus and effectively reduced the viral load of authentic SARS-CoV-2 Omicron sublineage BA.5.2 in the cell culture supernatants. These results suggested that this subunit combined vaccine achieved protective effect against both H1N1 A/California/07/2009 strain and SARS-CoV-2 Omicron BA.5.2 variant. It is therefore expected that this study will establish the scientific foundation for the next-step development of combined vaccines against other strains or variants of IAV and SARS-CoV-2.
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COVID-19 , Subtipo H1N1 del Virus de la Influenza A , Virus de la Influenza A , Vacunas contra la Influenza , Gripe Humana , Animales , Ratones , Humanos , SARS-CoV-2 , Ratones Endogámicos BALB C , COVID-19/prevención & control , Vacunas Combinadas , Inmunoglobulina G , Anticuerpos Antivirales , Anticuerpos NeutralizantesRESUMEN
[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.946957.].
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Zika virus (ZIKV), a re-emerging arbovirus, causes teratogenic effects on the fetus and normal nerve functions, resulting in harmful autoimmune responses, which call for the development of therapeutics against ZIKV infection. In this review, we introduce the pathogenesis of ZIKV infection and summarize the advancement in the development of therapeutics against ZIKV infection. It provides guidance for the development of effective therapeutics against ZIKV infection.
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Infección por el Virus Zika , Virus Zika , Humanos , Proteínas no Estructurales Virales , Infección por el Virus Zika/terapiaRESUMEN
The global pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has become more serious because of the continuous emergence of variants of concern (VOC), thus calling for the development of broad-spectrum vaccines with greater efficacy. Adjuvants play important roles in enhancing the immunogenicity of protein-based subunit vaccines. In this study, we compared the effect of three adjuvants, including aluminum, nanoparticle manganese and MF59, on the immunogenicity of three protein-based COVID-19 vaccine candidates, including RBD-Fc, RBD and S-trimer. We found that the nanoparticle manganese adjuvant elicited the highest titers of SARS-CoV-2 RBD-specific IgG, IgG1 and IgG2a, as well as neutralizing antibodies against infection by pseudotyped SARS-CoV-2 and its Delta variant. What is more, the nanoparticle manganese adjuvant effectively reduced the viral load of the authentic SARS-CoV-2 and Delta variant in the cell culture supernatants. These results suggest that nanoparticle manganese, known to facilitate cGAS-STING activation, is an optimal adjuvant for protein-based COVID-19 subunit vaccines.
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COVID-19 , Vacunas Virales , Animales , COVID-19/prevención & control , Vacunas contra la COVID-19 , Humanos , Inmunidad , Ratones , Ratones Endogámicos BALB C , SARS-CoV-2 , Vacunas de SubunidadRESUMEN
Several countries have made unremitting efforts to develop an optimal vaccine in the fight against coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). With the increasing occurrence of SARS-CoV-2 variants, current vaccines show decreased neutralizing activities, especially towards the Omicron variant. In this context, adding appropriate adjuvants to COVID-19 vaccines can substantially reduce the number of required doses and improve efficacy or cross-neutralizing protection. We mainly focus on research progress and achievements associated with adjuvanted COVID-19 subunit and inactivated vaccines. We further compare the advantages and disadvantages of different adjuvant formulations in order to provide a scientific reference for designing an effective strategy for future vaccine development.
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Adyuvantes Inmunológicos/administración & dosificación , Adyuvantes Inmunológicos/análisis , Vacunas contra la COVID-19/inmunología , SARS-CoV-2/inmunología , Anticuerpos Neutralizantes/inmunología , Anticuerpos Antivirales/inmunología , COVID-19/prevención & control , Vacunas contra la COVID-19/análisis , Humanos , Desarrollo de Vacunas/métodos , Vacunas de Productos InactivadosRESUMEN
Zika virus (ZIKV) is an arbovirus first discovered in the Americas. ZIKV infection is insidious based on its mild clinical symptoms observed after infection. In Brazil, after 2015, ZIKV infection broke out on a large scale, and many infected pregnant women gave birth to babies with microcephaly. The teratogenic effects of the virus on the fetus and its effects on nerves and the immune system have attracted great attention. Currently, no specific prophylactics or therapeutics are clinically available to treat ZIKV infection. Development of a safe and effective vaccine is essential to prevent the rise of any potential pandemic. In this review, we summarize the latest research on Zika vaccine development based on different strategies, including DNA vaccines, subunit vaccines, live-attenuated vaccines, virus-vector-based vaccines, inactivated vaccines, virus-like particles (VLPs), mRNA-based vaccines, and others. We anticipate that this review will facilitate further progress toward the development of effective and safe vaccines against ZIKV infection.
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TcpC is a multifunctional virulence factor of uropathogenic E. coli (UPEC). Neutrophil extracellular trap formation (NETosis) is a crucial anti-infection mechanism of neutrophils. Here we show the influence of TcpC on NETosis and related mechanisms. We show NETosis in the context of a pyelonephritis mouse model induced by TcpC-secreting wild-type E. coli CFT073 (CFT073wt) and LPS-induced in vitro NETosis with CFT073wt or recombinant TcpC (rTcpC)-treated neutrophils are inhibited. rTcpC enters neutrophils through caveolin-mediated endocytosis and inhibits LPS-induced production of ROS, proinflammatory cytokines and protein but not mRNA levels of peptidylarginine deiminase 4 (PAD4). rTcpC treatment enhances PAD4 ubiquitination and accumulation in proteasomes. Moreover, in vitro ubiquitination kit analyses show that TcpC is a PAD4-targetd E3 ubiquitin-ligase. These data suggest that TcpC inhibits NETosis primarily by serving as an E3 ligase that promotes degradation of PAD4. Our findings provide a novel mechanism underlying TcpC-mediated innate immune evasion.
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Proteínas de Escherichia coli/metabolismo , Trampas Extracelulares/metabolismo , Neutrófilos/metabolismo , Arginina Deiminasa Proteína-Tipo 4/metabolismo , Ubiquitinación , Factores de Virulencia/metabolismo , Animales , Cromatina/metabolismo , Citrulinación , Infecciones por Escherichia coli/inmunología , Infecciones por Escherichia coli/patología , Proteínas de Escherichia coli/genética , Histonas/metabolismo , Evasión Inmune , Ratones , Mutación , Complejo de la Endopetidasa Proteasomal/metabolismo , Arginina Deiminasa Proteína-Tipo 4/genética , Pielonefritis/inmunología , Pielonefritis/patología , Transcripción Genética , Ubiquitina-Proteína Ligasas/genética , Ubiquitina-Proteína Ligasas/metabolismo , Escherichia coli Uropatógena/metabolismo , Escherichia coli Uropatógena/patogenicidad , Factores de Virulencia/genéticaRESUMEN
Flaviviruses include several medically important viruses, such as Zika virus (ZIKV), Dengue virus (DENV), West Nile virus (WNV) and Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV). They have expanded in geographic distribution and refocused international attention in recent years. Vaccination is one of the most effective public health strategies for combating flavivirus infections. In this review, we summarized virus-like particle (VLP)-based vaccines against the above four mentioned flaviviruses. Potential strategies to improve the efficacy of VLP-based flavivirus vaccines were also illustrated. The applications of flavivirus VLPs as tools for viral detection and antiviral drug screening were finally proposed.
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INTRODUCTION: Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) causes high mortality in humans. No vaccines are approved for use in humans; therefore, a consistent effort to develop safe and effective MERS vaccines is needed. AREAS COVERED: This review describes the structure of MERS-CoV and the function of its proteins, summarizes MERS vaccine candidates under preclinical study (based on spike and non-spike structural proteins, inactivated virus, and live-attenuated virus), and highlights potential problems that could prevent these vaccines entering clinical trials. It provides guidance for the development of safe and effective MERS-CoV vaccines. EXPERT OPINION: Although many MERS-CoV vaccines have been developed, most remain at the preclinical stage. Some vaccines demonstrate immunogenicity and efficacy in animal models, while others have potential adverse effects or low efficacy against high-dose or divergent virus strains. Novel strategies are needed to design safe and effective MERS vaccines to induce broad-spectrum immune responses and improve protective efficacy against multiple strains of MERS-CoV and MERS-like coronaviruses with pandemic potential. More funds should be invested to move vaccine candidates into human clinical trials.
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Infecciones por Coronavirus/prevención & control , Coronavirus del Síndrome Respiratorio de Oriente Medio/inmunología , Vacunas Virales/inmunología , Infecciones por Coronavirus/virología , Humanos , Inmunogenicidad Vacunal , Coronavirus del Síndrome Respiratorio de Oriente Medio/genética , Modelos Moleculares , Glicoproteína de la Espiga del Coronavirus/genética , Glicoproteína de la Espiga del Coronavirus/inmunología , Proteínas no Estructurales Virales/genética , Proteínas no Estructurales Virales/inmunología , Vacunas Virales/genéticaRESUMEN
A novel coronavirus, designated as SARS-CoV-2, first emerged in Wuhan City, Hubei Province, China, in late December 2019. The rapidly increasing number of cases has caused worldwide panic. In this review, we describe some currently applied diagnostic approaches, as well as therapeutics and vaccines, to prevent, treat and control further outbreaks of SARS-CoV-2 infection.
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Antivirales/uso terapéutico , Infecciones por Coronavirus/diagnóstico , Infecciones por Coronavirus/prevención & control , Pandemias/prevención & control , Neumonía Viral/diagnóstico , Neumonía Viral/prevención & control , Vacunas Virales/inmunología , Animales , Betacoronavirus , COVID-19 , Vacunas contra la COVID-19 , China , Ensayos Clínicos como Asunto , Infecciones por Coronavirus/tratamiento farmacológico , Infecciones por Coronavirus/inmunología , Humanos , Neumonía Viral/tratamiento farmacológico , SARS-CoV-2 , Organización Mundial de la SaludRESUMEN
Respiratory tract viral infection caused by viruses or bacteria is one of the most common diseases in human worldwide, while those caused by emerging viruses, such as the novel coronavirus, 2019-nCoV that caused the pneumonia outbreak in Wuhan, China most recently, have posed great threats to global public health. Identification of the causative viral pathogens of respiratory tract viral infections is important to select an appropriate treatment, save people's lives, stop the epidemics, and avoid unnecessary use of antibiotics. Conventional diagnostic tests, such as the assays for rapid detection of antiviral antibodies or viral antigens, are widely used in many clinical laboratories. With the development of modern technologies, new diagnostic strategies, including multiplex nucleic acid amplification and microarray-based assays, are emerging. This review summarizes currently available and novel emerging diagnostic methods for the detection of common respiratory viruses, such as influenza virus, human respiratory syncytial virus, coronavirus, human adenovirus, and human rhinovirus. Multiplex assays for simultaneous detection of multiple respiratory viruses are also described. It is anticipated that such data will assist researchers and clinicians to develop appropriate diagnostic strategies for timely and effective detection of respiratory virus infections.
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Infecciones por Adenovirus Humanos/diagnóstico , Técnicas de Laboratorio Clínico , Infecciones por Coronavirus/diagnóstico , Gripe Humana/diagnóstico , Infecciones por Picornaviridae/diagnóstico , Infecciones por Virus Sincitial Respiratorio/diagnóstico , Infecciones del Sistema Respiratorio/diagnóstico , Prueba de COVID-19 , Humanos , Inmunoensayo , Pruebas Inmunológicas , Reacción en Cadena de la Polimerasa Multiplex , Técnicas de Amplificación de Ácido Nucleico , Reacción en Cadena en Tiempo Real de la Polimerasa , Rhinovirus , Virus/crecimiento & desarrollo , Virus/aislamiento & purificaciónRESUMEN
Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) with potential to cause global pandemics remains a threat to the public health, security, and economy. In this review, we focus on advances in the research and development of small-molecule MERS-CoV inhibitors targeting different stages of the MERS-CoV life cycle, aiming to prevent or treat MERS-CoV infection.
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Antivirales/farmacología , Coronavirus del Síndrome Respiratorio de Oriente Medio/efectos de los fármacos , Bibliotecas de Moléculas Pequeñas/farmacología , Animales , Infecciones por Coronavirus/tratamiento farmacológico , Descubrimiento de Drogas , Humanos , Ratones , Coronavirus del Síndrome Respiratorio de Oriente Medio/fisiología , Pandemias/prevención & control , Replicación Viral/efectos de los fármacosRESUMEN
Strategies that target multiple components are usually required for treatment of diseases originating from complex biological systems. The multicomponent system consisting of the DR4 major histocompatibility complex type II molecule, the glycopeptide CII259-273 from type II collagen, and a T-cell receptor is associated with development of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). We introduced non-native amino acids and amide bond isosteres into CII259-273 and investigated the effect on binding to DR4 and the subsequent T-cell response. Molecular dynamics simulations revealed that complexes between DR4 and derivatives of CII259-273 were highly dynamic. Signaling in the overall multicomponent system was found to depend on formation of an appropriate number of dynamic intramolecular hydrogen bonds between DR4 and CII259-273, together with the positioning of the galactose moiety of CII259-273 in the DR4 binding groove. Interestingly, the system tolerated modifications at several positions in CII259-273, indicating opportunities to use analogues to increase our understanding of how rheumatoid arthritis develops and for evaluation as vaccines to treat RA.
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Artritis Reumatoide/metabolismo , Artritis Reumatoide/patología , Transducción de Señal , Línea Celular , Antígeno HLA-DR4/química , Antígeno HLA-DR4/metabolismo , Humanos , Simulación de Dinámica Molecular , Estructura Secundaria de Proteína , Receptores del Ligando Inductor de Apoptosis Relacionado con TNF/química , Receptores del Ligando Inductor de Apoptosis Relacionado con TNF/metabolismo , Transducción de Señal/efectos de los fármacos , Linfocitos T/efectos de los fármacos , Linfocitos T/metabolismoRESUMEN
Chronic inflammatory autoimmune diseases leading to target tissue destruction and disability are not only causing increase in patients' suffering but also contribute to huge economic burden for the society. General increase in life expectancy and high prevalence of these diseases both in elderly and younger population emphasize the importance of developing safe and effective vaccines. In this review, at first the possible mechanisms and risk factors associated with chronic inflammatory autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis (RA), multiple sclerosis (MS), systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and type 1 diabetes (T1D) are discussed. Current advances in the development of vaccines for such autoimmune diseases, particularly those based on DNA, altered peptide ligands and peptide loaded MHC II complexes are discussed in detail. Finally, strategies for improving the efficacy of potential vaccines are explored.
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Enfermedades Autoinmunes/prevención & control , Vacunas/farmacología , Adyuvantes Inmunológicos/farmacología , Artritis Reumatoide/etiología , Artritis Reumatoide/prevención & control , Enfermedades Autoinmunes/inmunología , Enfermedad Crónica , Diabetes Mellitus Tipo 1/etiología , Diabetes Mellitus Tipo 1/prevención & control , Epítopos , Femenino , Predisposición Genética a la Enfermedad , Humanos , Lupus Eritematoso Sistémico/etiología , Lupus Eritematoso Sistémico/prevención & control , Masculino , Esclerosis Múltiple/etiología , Esclerosis Múltiple/prevención & control , Factores Sexuales , Vacunas/administración & dosificación , Vacunas de ADN/farmacologíaRESUMEN
Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS), an emerging infectious disease caused by MERS coronavirus (MERS-CoV), has garnered worldwide attention as a consequence of its continuous spread and pandemic potential, making the development of effective vaccines a high priority. We previously demonstrated that residues 377-588 of MERS-CoV spike (S) protein receptor-binding domain (RBD) is a very promising MERS subunit vaccine candidate, capable of inducing potent neutralization antibody responses. In this study, we sought to identify an adjuvant that optimally enhanced the immunogenicity of S377-588 protein fused with Fc of human IgG (S377-588-Fc). Specifically, we compared several commercially available adjuvants, including Freund's adjuvant, aluminum, Monophosphoryl lipid A, Montanide ISA51 and MF59 with regard to their capacity to enhance the immunogenicity of this subunit vaccine. In the absence of adjuvant, S377-588-Fc alone induced readily detectable neutralizing antibody and T-cell responses in immunized mice. However, incorporating an adjuvant improved its immunogenicity. Particularly, among the aforementioned adjuvants evaluated, MF59 is the most potent as judged by its superior ability to induce the highest titers of IgG, IgG1 and IgG2a subtypes, and neutralizing antibodies. The addition of MF59 significantly augmented the immunogenicity of S377-588-Fc to induce strong IgG and neutralizing antibody responses as well as protection against MERS-CoV infection in mice, suggesting that MF59 is an optimal adjuvant for MERS-CoV RBD-based subunit vaccines.
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Adyuvantes Inmunológicos/farmacología , Coronavirus del Síndrome Respiratorio de Oriente Medio/inmunología , Glicoproteína de la Espiga del Coronavirus/farmacología , Vacunas Virales/farmacocinética , Adyuvantes Inmunológicos/química , Animales , Anticuerpos Antivirales/inmunología , Infecciones por Coronavirus/inmunología , Infecciones por Coronavirus/prevención & control , Femenino , Humanos , Inmunoglobulina G/inmunología , Ratones , Ratones Endogámicos BALB C , Glicoproteína de la Espiga del Coronavirus/inmunología , Vacunas de Subunidad/inmunología , Vacunas de Subunidad/farmacología , Vacunas Virales/inmunologíaRESUMEN
Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) is an emerging infectious disease caused by MERS coronavirus (MERS-CoV). The continuous increase of MERS cases has posed a serious threat to public health worldwide, calling for development of safe and effective MERS vaccines. We have previously shown that a recombinant protein containing residues 377-588 of MERS-CoV receptor-binding domain (RBD) fused with human Fc (S377-588-Fc) induced highly potent anti-MERS-CoV neutralizing antibodies in the presence of MF59 adjuvant. Here we optimized the doses of S377-588-Fc using MF59 as an adjuvant in order to elicit strong immune responses with minimal amount of antigen. Our results showed that S377-588-Fc at 1 µg was able to induce in the immunized mice potent humoral and cellular immune responses. Particularly, S377-588-Fc at 1 µg elicited strong neutralizing antibody responses against both pseudotyped and live MERS-CoV similar to those induced at 5 and 20 µg, respectively. These results suggest that this RBD-based subunit MERS vaccine candidate at the dose as low as one µg is sufficiently potent to induce strong humoral and cellular immune responses, including neutralizing antibodies, against MERS-CoV infection, thus providing guidance for determining the optimal dosage of RBD-based MERS vaccines in the future clinical trials and for applying the dose-sparing strategy in other subunit vaccine trials.
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Infecciones por Coronavirus/prevención & control , Coronavirus del Síndrome Respiratorio de Oriente Medio/inmunología , Vacunas Virales/administración & dosificación , Vacunas Virales/inmunología , Adyuvantes Inmunológicos/administración & dosificación , Animales , Anticuerpos Neutralizantes/sangre , Anticuerpos Antivirales/sangre , Antígenos Virales/administración & dosificación , Antígenos Virales/genética , Antígenos Virales/inmunología , Femenino , Humanos , Inmunidad Celular , Inmunidad Humoral , Fragmentos Fc de Inmunoglobulinas/administración & dosificación , Fragmentos Fc de Inmunoglobulinas/genética , Fragmentos Fc de Inmunoglobulinas/inmunología , Ratones Endogámicos BALB C , Polisorbatos/administración & dosificación , Proteínas Recombinantes de Fusión/administración & dosificación , Proteínas Recombinantes de Fusión/genética , Proteínas Recombinantes de Fusión/inmunología , Escualeno/administración & dosificación , Vacunas de Subunidad/administración & dosificación , Vacunas de Subunidad/genética , Vacunas de Subunidad/inmunología , Vacunas Virales/genéticaRESUMEN
Amino acid residues in the N-terminal of the PA subunit (PAN) of the influenza A virus polymerase play critical roles in endonuclease activity, protein stability, and viral RNA (vRNA) promoter binding. In addition, PAN is highly conserved among different subtypes of influenza virus, which suggests PAN to be a desired target in the development of anti-influenza agents. We selected DNA aptamers targeting the intact PA protein or the PAN domain of an H5N1 virus strain using systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment (SELEX). The binding affinities of selected aptamers were measured, followed by an evaluation of in vitro endonuclease inhibitory activity. Next, the antiviral effects of enriched aptamers against influenza A virus infections were examined. A total of three aptamers targeting PA and six aptamers targeting PAN were selected. Our data demonstrated that all three PA-selected aptamers neither inhibited endonuclease activity nor exhibited antiviral efficacy, whereas four of the six PAN-selected aptamers inhibited both endonuclease activity and H5N1 virus infection. Among the four effective aptamers, one exhibited cross-protection against infections of H1N1, H5N1, H7N7, and H7N9 influenza viruses, with a 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50) of around 10 nM. Notably, this aptamer was identified at the 5th round but disappeared after the 10th round of selection, suggesting that the identification and evaluation of aptamers at early rounds of selection may be highly helpful for screening effective aptamers. Overall, our study provides novel insights for screening and developing effective aptamers for use as anti-influenza drugs.
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Antivirales/uso terapéutico , Aptámeros de Nucleótidos/uso terapéutico , Endonucleasas/efectos de los fármacos , Subtipo H5N1 del Virus de la Influenza A/enzimología , Gripe Humana/prevención & control , Animales , Calorimetría , Línea Celular , Protección Cruzada , Huella de ADN , Desoxirribonucleasa I/química , Perros , Humanos , Subtipo H5N1 del Virus de la Influenza A/efectos de los fármacos , Insectos , Células de Riñón Canino Madin Darby , Oligonucleótidos/farmacología , Estructura Secundaria de Proteína , Técnica SELEX de Producción de Aptámeros , Especificidad de la EspecieRESUMEN
The ongoing threat of influenza epidemics and pandemics has emphasized the importance of developing safe and effective vaccines against infections from divergent influenza viruses. In this review, we first introduce the structure and life cycle of influenza A viruses, describing major influenza A virus-caused pandemics. We then compare different types of influenza vaccines and discuss current advancements in the development of subunit influenza vaccines, particularly those based on nucleoprotein (NP), extracellular domain of matrix protein 2 (M2e) and hemagglutinin (HA) proteins. We also illustrate potential strategies for improving the efficacy of subunit influenza vaccines.
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Vacunas contra la Influenza/genética , Animales , Humanos , Virus de la Influenza A/inmunología , Virus de la Influenza A/patogenicidad , Virus de la Influenza A/fisiología , Vacunas contra la Influenza/inmunología , Vacunas contra la Influenza/uso terapéutico , Vacunas de Subunidad/genética , Vacunas de Subunidad/inmunologíaRESUMEN
Development of effective vaccines, in particular, subunit-based vaccines, against emerging Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) caused by the MERS coronavirus (MERS-CoV) will provide the safest means of preventing the continuous spread of MERS in humans and camels. This review briefly describes the structure of the MERS-CoV spike (S) protein and its receptor-binding domain (RBD), discusses the current status of MERS vaccine development and illustrates the strategies used to develop RBD-based subunit vaccines against MERS. It also summarizes currently available animal models for MERS-CoV and proposes a future direction for MERS vaccines. Taken together, this review will assist researchers working to develop effective and safe subunit vaccines against MERS-CoV and any other emerging coronaviruses that might cause future pandemics.