Agonistic behaviors of boxer shrimps (Stenopus Species): Insights into the importance of antennae, antennules and tactile contact.

Agonistic behaviors are crucial and ubiquitous among animals for the competition of limited resources. Although the study of aggression has been a popular topic, plenty of studies focused on model organisms, and typically on crayfish and lobsters for crustaceans. Variations of the agonistic behaviors and the underpinning eliciting cues of other crustaceans therefore have not been fully explored. In the present study, we targeted Stenopus, a genus of shrimp-like crustaceans that displays prominent agonistic behaviors when encountering conspecifics of the same sex owing to their monogamous social structure. Using S. hispidus (Olivier, 1811) and S. cyanoscelis (Goy, 1984) as representatives, we characterized their agonistic behaviors and fighting pattern, conducted experiments to investigate the contribution of visual, olfactory and tactile cues to inducing aggression, and examined the effects of antennal and antennular ablation on their agonistic interactions. A total of seven agonistic behaviors were documented, where antennal entwining and tactile contact is the major driver and seemingly important cue, respectively, in inducing agonistic behaviors in Stenopus. Although ablation of antennae and antennules did not inhibit fighting, behavioral changes, such as the prolonged agonistic interactions and the delayed establishment of dominance were observed, suggesting a reduction of aggressiveness. A comparison of agonistic behaviors with other crustaceans showed that certain features appeared to be unique or distinct in Stenopus, including the potential functional overlap of antennae and antennules, a higher aggressiveness of the fighting behaviors, and the exhibition of crouching behavior by submissive individuals. The present study provides a crucial background understanding for subsequent research on Stenopus and paves the way for its establishment as another crustacean model for studying aggression.

The effect of digital game addiction on aggression and anger levels in adolescents: A cross-sectional study.

PURPOSE: In this study, it was aimed to determine the effect of digital game addiction on aggression and anger levels in adolescents. DESIGN AND METHODS: The participants of this cross-sectional study were adolescents. Data were collected using a socio-demographic questionnaire, Game Addiction Scale, and Buss-Perry Aggression Scale. Descriptive statistics, t-test, Anova, correlation and linear regression analysis were used in the analysis of the data. RESULTS: In this study, game addiction and aggression levels of adolescents were determined as moderate. The game type that adolescents played the most was determined as war games with 35 %. The mean score of the Game Addiction Scale for male adolescents, those with medium and high income levels, those who play digital games for >8 h a day and every day, was found to be significantly higher. In this study, a positive and moderately significant correlation was found between Game Addiction Scale and Aggression Total Scale and Anger subscale (p < 0.05). Especially male gender (ß = 0.273), high income status (ß = -0.089), long time playing digital games (ß = 0.173) and playing digital games every day (ß = 0.360) were determined as predictors that increase game addiction. CONCLUSIONS: Digital game addiction can trigger aggression and anger in adolescents. Nurses play a crucial role in screening and identifying adolescents at risk of game addiction to prevent aggression and anger. PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS: According to the findings of this research, it is necessary to provide training and counseling to prevent digital game addiction in schools and to plan strategies by psychiatric nurses.

Understanding aggression displayed by patients and families towards intensive care staff: A systematic review.

Objectives: The objective of this systematic review was to synthesise literature pertaining to patient and family violence (PFV) directed at Intensive Care Unit (ICU) staff. Design: Study design was a systematic review. The data was not amenable to meta-analysis. Data Sources and Review Methods: Electronic searches of databases were conducted to identify studies between 1 January 2000 and 6 March 2023, limited to literature in English only. Published empirical peer-reviewed literature of any design (qualitative or quantitative) were included. Studies which only described workplace violence outside of ICU, systematic reviews, commentaries, editorials, letters, non-English literature and grey literature were excluded. All studies were appraised for quality and risk of bias using validated tools. Results: Eighteen studies were identified: 13 quantitative; 2 qualitative and 3 mixed methodology. Themes included: (i) what is abuse and what do I do about it? (ii) who is at risk? (iii) it is common, but how common? (iv) workplace factors; (v) impact on patient care; (vi) effect on staff; (vii)the importance of the institutional response; and (viii) current or suggested solutions. Conclusions: This systematic review demonstrated that PFV in the ICU is neither well-understood nor well-managed due to multiple factors including non-standardised definition of abuse, normalisation, inadequate organisational support and general lack of education of staff and public. This will guide in future research and policy decision making.

Response to workplace aggression in forensic and secure mental health services: Investigating staff confidence, associated factors, and training needs.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate forensic and secure mental health services (FSMHS) staff's confidence in managing workplace aggression, identify associated factors, and explore their workplace aggression prevention training needs. METHODS: Through an online survey, staff rated their experience of workplace aggression, perceived effectiveness of current training, and confidence in responding to workplace aggression, and described training needs. Stepwise multiple regression was used to identify associated factors with statistical significance. Thematic analysis was used to generate themes describing their training needs. RESULTS: The staff perceived current training as low-to-medium in effectiveness, mirroring their confidence in managing workplace aggression. Nurses experienced more workplace aggression compared to other professions. Staff working at High Security perceived current training as less effective compared to those working at Medium Security or Low Security. Qualitative findings underscored the necessity for improved training content, methods, and supportive strategies. CONCLUSION: Recommendations for enhancing training include: tailoring training to FSMHS settings; equally focussing on both non-physical and physical intervention techniques; providing more scenario-based hands-on practice opportunities; delivering training in a reasonable trainer-trainee ratio; prioritising nurses and High Security staff and integrating other professions into the training framework; and implementing strategies that support staff, consumers, and environment to ensure training effectiveness and applicability.

Longitudinal Trajectories of Physical Teen Dating Perpetration and Trait Anger Expression: A Group-Based Trajectory Approach.

Dating violence is often perpetrated among adolescents, which increases the efforts to better understand individual risk factors for preventive efforts. Although multiple forms (i.e., physical and psychological) often coexist, few studies have studied the chronicity and developmental classes of physical teen dating violence and examined whether subtypes of trait anger predict teen dating perpetration over time. Thus, the purpose of the current study is to investigate: (a) the developmental group-based patterns of physical teen dating violence; and (b) whether subtypes of trait anger expression predict association in these classes using the Bullying, Sexual, and Dating Violence Trajectories from Early to Late Adolescence in the Midwestern United States, 2007 to 2013 dataset. Group-based trajectory modeling results identified four classes of teen dating violence perpetration (e.g., Accelerating, Abstaining, Desisting, and High Chronic). Multinomial logistic regression results indicated that expressing anger outwardly was positively associated with Desisting and High Chronic patterns, but not Accelerating patterns. These results suggest that there are four classes of teen dating violence perpetration and underscore the effects of expression of trait anger as a risk factor of teen dating violence perpetration. Practical and theoretical implications are discussed.

Prevalence and factors of physical punishment and psychological aggression toward children under five in Mongolia: an analysis of the 2018 Social Indicator Survey.

BACKGROUND: The global prevalence of violence against children is alarmingly high, with millions facing violent discipline and physical punishment. In Mongolia, domestic violence-related criminal offenses have sharply increased, with a 46.92% surge in the first quarter of 2020 compared to 2019. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to estimate the prevalence of and identify factors associated with physical punishment and/or psychological aggression experienced by children under 5 years old from their caregivers. METHODS: We used data from the nationally representative 2018 MICS6 dataset. To examine the association between independent and dependent variables, we used multilevel Poisson regression because it provides a better estimate and is more interpretable when the prevalence is relatively high. RESULTS: The prevalence of psychological aggression was reported at 32.3% and physical punishment at 31.6%, including severe forms. Nonviolent techniques were common, with 77.5% exclusively using nonviolent discipline. Psychological aggression was more likely to occur in older children (3 and 4 years old) and in households with Buddhist heads. Additionally, 3-year-olds are more likely to experience physical punishment compared to 2-year-olds. CONCLUSION: These findings underscore the need for targeted policy interventions, including age-sensitive parental education programs and religious and cultural sensitivity measures. Comprehensive educational and awareness programs are essential to foster a culture of nonviolence across all educational levels, highlighting the need for context-specific policies to safeguard the well-being of children in Mongolia.

Main finding The study highlights concerning rates of physical punishment and psychological aggression toward children under five in Mongolia.Added Knowledge The study findings contribute novel insights into the intricate relationship between sociocultural factors and disciplinary practices, emphasizing the influence of religious affiliations and maternal education on child-rearing approaches.Global health impact for policy and action Urgent policy interventions are warranted to address violence against children, with an emphasis on culturally sensitive parental education programs and comprehensive awareness campaigns.

Risk of adverse perinatal outcomes with violence in pregnancy.

PURPOSE: To examine the association between physical, sexual, or physiological harm in pregnancy and perinatal outcomes in a large, contemporary birth cohort. METHODS: This retrospective cohort study used California-linked vital statistics and hospital discharge data from 2016 to 2020. We included singleton, non-anomalous births with a gestational age of 23-42 weeks. Violence in pregnancy was identified using International Classification of Disease, Tenth Revision (ICD-10) codes. Chi-square tests and multivariable Poisson regression models were used to evaluate associations of violence in pregnancy with perinatal outcomes. RESULTS: A total of 1,728,478 pregnancies met inclusion criteria, of which 3,457 (0.2%) had reported violence in pregnancy. Compared to those without violence in pregnancy, individuals who experienced violence had an increased risk of non-severe hypertensive disorders (aRR = 1.36, 95% CI 1.22, 1.51), preeclampsia with severe features (aRR = 1.34; 95% CI 1.11, 1.61), chorioamnionitis (aRR = 1.68; 95% CI 1.48, 1.91), anemia (aRR = 1.59; 95% CI 1.50, 1.68), antepartum hemorrhage (aRR = 2.17; 95% CI 1.19, 3.95), and postpartum hemorrhage (aRR = 1.65; 95% CI 1.48, 1.85). Violence in pregnancy was also associated with increased risk of Apgar score < 7 at 5 min (aRR = 1.37; 95% CI 1.11, 1.71) and neonatal hypoglycemia (aRR = 1.26; 95% CI 1.07, 1.48). CONCLUSION: Violence experienced in pregnancy is associated with an increased risk of adverse perinatal outcomes. Understanding how universal screening and early recognition of violence in pregnancy may reduce disparities in maternal morbidity for this understudied population is critical.

The Use of Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone to Manage Intraspecific Agonism in a Coalition of Male Lions (Panthera leo).

While housing nonbreeding all-male social groups of African lion (panthera leo) is a necessary part of managing this polygynous species ex situ, resulting intraspecific agonistic behavior can negatively impact animal welfare and guest experience, undermining two primary objectives of modern zoological gardens. Improvest is a gonadotropin releasing factor analog-diphtheria toxoid conjugate marketed for temporary immunological castration which has proven successful in reducing aggression in other zoo-housed species. To the authors' knowledge, the use of this technique has not been described in male African lions; reticence to use GnRH agonists may stem from concern about phenotypic effects (mane loss) and zoo visitor perception. We describe the use of Improvest in conjunction with other management changes to manage agonism in a coalition of African lions (3.0) housed at the Oakland Zoo. Daily agonism scores were calculated via animal care staff records, fecal testosterone levels were measured, and monthly photos were taken to monitor phenotypic changes. While agonism scores varied seasonally in three pretreatment years, a significant (p < 0.05) reduction in the frequency of agonistic behavior began within 2 months of initial treatment. Two lions showed testosterone suppression within 2 months of receiving the first vaccine, while the third showed suppression beginning in the period 4 months after the first vaccine. Mane loss occurred in all three lions, and time to mane regrowth varied between individuals. Improvest, combined with other management strategies, decreased overall fecal testosterone and intraspecific agonism in these lions, and may be an effective tool in other male coalitions.

Perception of emotional facial expressions in aggression and psychopathy.

BACKGROUND: Altered affective state recognition is assumed to be a root cause of aggressive behavior, a hallmark of psychopathologies such as psychopathy and antisocial personality disorder. However, the two most influential models make markedly different predictions regarding the underlying mechanism. According to the integrated emotion system theory (IES), aggression reflects impaired processing of social distress cues such as fearful faces. In contrast, the hostile attribution bias (HAB) model explains aggression with a bias to interpret ambiguous expressions as angry. METHODS: In a set of four experiments, we measured processing of fearful and angry facial expressions (compared to neutral and other expressions) in a sample of 65 male imprisoned violent offenders rated using the Hare Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R, Hare, R. D. (1991). The psychopathy checklist-revised. Toronto, ON: Multi-Health Systems) and in 60 age-matched control participants. RESULTS: There was no evidence for a fear deficit in violent offenders or for an association of psychopathy or aggression with impaired processing of fearful faces. Similarly, there was no evidence for a perceptual bias for angry faces linked to psychopathy or aggression. However, using highly ambiguous stimuli and requiring explicit labeling of emotions, violent offenders showed a categorization bias for anger and this anger bias correlated with self-reported trait aggression (but not with psychopathy). CONCLUSIONS: These results add to a growing literature casting doubt on the notion that fear processing is impaired in aggressive individuals and in psychopathy and provide support for the idea that aggression is related to a hostile attribution bias that emerges from later cognitive, post-perceptual processing stages.

Longitudinal Impacts of Housing Cost Burden on Physical and Psychological Aggression of Children From Age 3 to 15.

Housing cost burden is stressful for families, interfering with healthy, positive parenting. The present study uses data from the Future of Families and Child Wellbeing Study to examine the relationship between housing cost burden and aggressive parenting with children age 3 to age 15. Latent growth curve modeling finds that both types of aggressive parenting behaviors decline on average, but that housing cost burden contributes to significant ongoing risk. Results indicate within-time associations between housing cost burden and psychological aggression and associations both within- and across-time between housing cost burden and physical aggression. Housing cost burden poses a significant risk factor for families, and child maltreatment prevention approaches must incorporate strategies for addressing housing cost burden.

The Perils of the Unknown: Intolerance of Uncertainty and Intimate Partner Violence Across the First Four Pandemic Waves.

Theory suggests that intolerance of uncertainty (IU), a tendency to perceive uncertain events as threatening, may serve as a potential risk factor for increased intimate partner violence (IPV) perpetration; however, few studies have investigated this association, and none have taken a longitudinal approach. We investigated the issue in two longitudinal online investigations (initial N = 282 and 1,118), with time periods ranging from just before the COVID-19 pandemic to the fourth pandemic wave, approximately 1.5 years later. IU was a significant predictor of IPV cross-sectionally, and in the short term longitudinally (i.e., over periods of weeks); however, it did not predict IPV over the longer term (i.e., over periods of months or years). In addition, our longitudinal design allowed assessment of IPV trends across pandemic waves. Physical IPV rates remained low and steady across time. Psychological IPV rates showed an increase in the early days of the pandemic, but then dropped and stabilized, albeit at a somewhat higher rate than pre-pandemic. Study 2 had ample representation of LGBTQ+ respondents and showed that the patterns and processes worked similarly for LGBTQ+ and non-LGBTQ+ individuals.

A gut reaction? The role of the microbiome in aggression.

Recent research has unveiled conflicting evidence regarding the link between aggression and the gut microbiome. Here, we compared behavior profiles of control, germ-free (GF), and antibiotic-treated mice, as well as re-colonized GF mice to understand the impact of the gut microbiome on aggression using the resident-intruder paradigm. Our findings revealed a link between gut microbiome depletion and higher aggression, accompanied by notable changes in urine metabolite profiles and brain gene expression. This study extends beyond classical murine models to humanized mice to reveal the clinical relevance of early-life antibiotic use on aggression. Fecal microbiome transplant from infants exposed to antibiotics in early life (and sampled one month later) into mice led to increased aggression compared to mice receiving transplants from unexposed infants. This study sheds light on the role of the gut microbiome in modulating aggression and highlights its potential avenues of action, offering insights for development of therapeutic strategies for aggression-related disorders.

Bystander Action Beyond Intervention: Video-Observing the Bystander Behavior of Men and Women in Real-Life Public Conflicts.

Previous research suggests that bystanders of conflicts use a range of intervention strategies. Yet, much less is known about other actions-beyond intervention-that bystanders might engage in during conflicts. Further, while prior studies reveal that gender differences emerge in bystander behavior, few studies have assessed the ecological validity of such potential differences in bystander actions during real-life conflicts. Addressing this concern, we systematically observed the diverse bystander behaviors of individuals presenting as men and women in real-life public conflicts captured on CCTV. We observed 67 public conflicts in the inner city of Amsterdam, the Netherlands. Using a qualitative approach, we first identified the broad spectrum of actions that bystanders engaged in. We then ran linear probability models to examine the relationship between bystander's gender presentation and bystanders' engagement in seven bystander actions (N = 1,959), followed by a multimodel analysis to test the robustness of these findings. Results indicate that bystanders engaged in a diversity of actions, ranging from inattentive (i.e., glancing while moving) and reactive actions (e.g., laughing) to physical forms of intervention. Unexpectedly, women were not more likely to engage in affiliative forms of intervention (e.g., calming hand gestures, non-forceful touching, and practical help). In addition to physical intervention, men were more likely to react to conflicts by laughing, filming, or cheering. The only type of action that was more typical among women than men was inattention (i.e., glancing while moving). Our results show that bystander behavior in public space is carried out in gendered ways, albeit in a less clear-cut manner than expected.

Maternal high-fat or low-protein diets promote autism-related behavior and altered social behavior within groups in offspring male mice.

Maternal malnutrition has been associated with neurodevelopmental deficits and long-term implications on the offspring's health and behavior. Here, we investigated the effects of maternal low-protein diet (LPD) or obesity-inducing maternal high-fat diet (HFD) on dyadic social interactions, group organization and autism-related behaviors in mice. We found that maternal HFD induced an autism-related behavioral phenotype in the male offspring, including a robust decrease in sociability, increased aggression, cognitive rigidity and repetitive behaviors. Maternal LPD led to a milder yet significant effect on autism-related symptoms, with no effects on olfactory-mediated social behavior. Under naturalistic conditions in a group setting, this manifested in altered behavioral repertoires, increased magnitude in dominance relations, and reduced interactions with novel social stimuli in the HFD male offspring, but not in the LPD offspring. Finally, we found HFD-induced transcriptomic changes in the olfactory bulbs of the male offspring. Together, our findings show that maternal malnutrition induces long-lasting effects on aggression and autism-related behaviors in male offspring, and potential impairments in brain regions processing chemosensory signals.

Impulsiveness, suicide, and aggression in a sample of patients with disorders of methyl amphetamine use.

BACKGROUND: Research has showed a link between patients with methamphetamine dependence and the risk of impulsiveness, aggression, and the risk of suicide. But, this link has not been studied in patients abusing methamphetamine, and it is unknown how impulsiveness, aggression, and the risk of suicide affect them. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This cross-sectional study included 130 adult patients diagnosed with the disorder of the use of amphetamine, methamphetamine, cannabinoids, alcohol, other substances, and polysubstance admitted in the Addiction Department for Mental Health. Participants were interviewed for detailed psychiatric history using a structured questionnaire comprising of structured clinical interview for diagnosis I, Arabic version of the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale-11 (BIS), Beck Scale for Suicidal Ideation for the evaluation of suicidal ideation and behavior, and the Aggression and Hostility scale for adolescents and youth. SPSS was used for data analysis; Initial analysis included descriptive statistics: frequencies and percentages for categorical variables and mean and standard deviation for continuous variables. Chi-square test/Fisher's exact test assessed for association between categorical variables, whereas one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA)/ Kruskal-Wallis test was used to compare continuous variables. RESULTS: Patients who used methamphetamine either alone (23%) or with polysubstance (42.6%) were associated with higher suicidal risk than patients who did use other substances than methamphetamine (36.1%). A comparison of the three groups on impulsivity, showed significant difference regarding total scores, motor preservation, and non-planning self-control. No significant differences found between three groups on the aggression scores. CONCLUSIONS: There was a higher rate of impulsivity and suicidal risk in patients with methamphetamine dependence in comparison to dependence on other substances, while there was no difference with regard to aggression between patients with methamphetamine dependence and those dependent on other substances. This finding raises the issue of methamphetamine use disorder as a new substance of dependence.

Pediatric psychiatric inpatients' perspectives of aggression management: Discernment in the doorway.

PROBLEM: Aggressive behavior is common on psychiatric inpatient units. Seclusion and restraint interventions to manage patients' aggressive behavior may have the consequence of being traumatizing for patients. Pediatric psychiatric patients' perspective on the use of seclusion and restraint interventions is not present in the literature. METHODS: This hermeneutic nursing research study asked the question, "How might we understand children's experiences of seclusion and restraints on an inpatient psychiatric unit?" Four past pediatric psychiatric inpatients shared their hospitalization experiences that occurred within the previous year when they were 10 years old. The texts of the research interviews were compared to Attachment Theory for a deeper understanding of the meaning of the message. FINDINGS: Participants commonly described experiences with seclusion and restraints as feeling trapped and alone in a dark room. They recommended the nurses step into the room with them to help them heal. Interpretively, the rooms on inpatient units could be considered as actual and metaphorical spaces of possible harm or healing. CONCLUSION: The participant's voices expand understanding of nurse's use of discernment at the doorway of a patient room to ensure the most therapeutic care is provided to the patient in these spaces through a secure nurse-patient relationship.

Investigating the impact of lumping heterogenous conduct problems: aggression and rule-breaking rely on distinct spontaneous brain activity.

Accumulating evidence suggests that aggression and rule-breaking may have distinct origins. However, grouping these heterogeneous behaviors into a single dimension labelled Conduct Problems (CP) has become the norm rather than the exception. Yet, the neurobiological features that differentiate aggression and rule-breaking remain largely unexplored. Using a large sample of children and adolescents (n = 1360, 6-18 years old), we examined the common and specific brain activity between CP, aggression, and rule-breaking behaviors. Analyses were conducted using fMRI resting-state data from a 10-minute session to explore the correlations between low frequency fluctuations and both broad and fine-grained CP dimensions. The broad CP dimension was associated with deficits in the precentral gyrus, superior temporal gyrus, and tempo-parietal junction. However, only the superior temporal gyrus was shared between aggression and rule-breaking. Activity of the precentral gyrus was mainly associated with rule-breaking, and the temporo-parietal cortex with aggression. More importantly, voxel-wise analyses on fine-grained dimensions revealed additional specific effects that were initially obscured when using a broad CP dimension. Finally, we showed that the findings specific to aggression and rule-breaking may be related to distinct brain networks and mental functions, especially ventral attention/sensorimotor processes and default mode network/social cognitions, respectively. The current study highlights that aggression and rule-breaking may be related to distinct local and distributed neurobiological markers. Overall, using fine-grained dimensions may provide a clearer picture of the role of neurobiological correlates in CP and their invariance across measurement levels. We advocate for adopting a more thorough examination of the lumping/splitting effect across neuroimaging studies on CP.

Brief report: Social comparison, hypercompetitiveness, and indirect aggression: Associations with loneliness and mental health.

Indirect aggression is commonly used in adulthood, but most researchers have focused on this behavior in romantic relationships or from an intrasexual competition perspective. Therefore, we aimed to understand the social characteristics and mental health correlates of indirect aggression by combining perspectives from developmental psychopathology and evolutionary psychology. We examined: (1) whether social characteristics (social comparison, hypercompetitiveness) contributed to indirect aggression (perpetration, victimization) and (2) whether there were indirect effects from indirect aggression (perpetration, victimization) to mental health difficulties through loneliness. In a cross-sectional sample of 475 young adults (57.7% women, 51.6% White, Mage = 20.2, SDage = 2.18), path analyses revealed that social comparison predicted indirect aggression victimization, which indirectly predicted mental health difficulties (depression, anxiety, somatic symptoms) through loneliness. In contrast, indirect aggression perpetration was only predicted by hypercompetitiveness. The findings highlight that reframing cognitions associated with social comparison could help prevent indirect aggression and mental health difficulties among young people.

Relationship Between Direct Aggression and Prosocial Behavior: The Role of Attention and Intelligence Among Children at Risk for Behavioral Problems.

This study aimed to investigate the influence of attention and intelligence in the prediction of prosocial behavior by direct aggression (proactive or reactive) in school-aged children at risk for behavioral problems. The sample was composed of 64 children aged 6 to 8 years screened for risk of behavioral problems, who were enrolled in a clinical trial. Multiple regression models were tested to investigate the prediction of prosocial behavior by direct aggression (proactive or reactive), attention, and intelligence. Additive multiple moderation models were tested to analyze the conditional effect of attention and intelligence in the prediction of prosocial behavior by proactive and reactive aggression. Aggression (proactive or reactive), attention, and intelligence did not linearly predict prosocial behavior. Conditional effects were found only for the proactive aggression model. Negative impacts on prosocial behavior were observed among children with low attention and high intelligence performance, while medium and high levels of attention showed to be protective factors among low to medium intellectual ability children. Clinical impacts of the results are discussed.