Enzyme-armed nanocleaner provides superior detoxification against organophosphorus compounds via a dual-action mechanism.

By inhibiting acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity, organophosphate compounds (OPs) can quickly cause severe injury to the nervous system and death, making it extremely difficult to rescue victims after OP exposure. However, it is quite challenging to construct scavengers that neutralize and eliminate these harmful chemical agents promptly in the blood circulation system. Herein, we report an enzyme-armed biomimetic nanoparticle that enables a 'targeted binding and catalytic degradation' action mechanism designed for highly efficient in vivo detoxification (denoted as 'Nanocleaner'). Specifically, the resulting Nanocleaner is fabricated with polymeric cores camouflaged with a modified red blood cell membrane (RBC membrane) that is inserted with the organophosphorus hydrolase (OPH) enzyme. In such a subtle construct, Nanocleaner inherits abundant acetylcholinesterase (AChE) on the surface of the RBC membrane, which can specifically lure and neutralize OPs through biological binding. The OPH enzyme on the membrane surface breaks down toxicants catalytically. The in vitro protective effects of Nanocleaner against methyl paraoxon (MPO)-induced inhibition of AChE activity were validated using both preincubation and competitive regimens. Furthermore, we selected the PC12 neuroendocrine cell line as an experimental model and confirmed the cytoprotective effects of Nanocleaner against MPO. In mice challenged with a lethal dose of MPO, Nanocleaner significantly reduces clinical signs of intoxication, rescues AChE activity and promotes the survival rate of mice challenged with lethal MPO. Overall, these results suggest considerable promise of enzyme-armed Nanocleaner for the highly efficient removal of OPs for clinical treatment.

Polymorphism and Pharmacological Assessment of Carbamazepine.

This work provides insight into carbamazepine polymorphs (Forms I, II, III, IV, and V), with reports on the cytoprotective, exploratory, motor, CNS-depressant, and anticonvulsant properties of carbamazepine (CBZ), carbamazepine formulation (CBZ-F), topiramate (TOP), oxcarbazepine (OXC), and diazepam (DZP) in mice. Structural analysis highlighted the significant difference in molecular conformations, which directly influence the physicochemical properties; and density functional theory description provided indications about CBZ reactivity and stability. In addition to neuron viability assessment in vitro, animals were treated orally with vehicle 10 mL/kg, as well as CBZ, CBZ-F, TOP, OXC, and DZP at the dose of 5 mg/kg and exposed to open-field, rotarod, barbiturate sleep induction and pentylenetetrazol (PTZ 70 mg/kg)-induced seizure. The involvement of GABAergic mechanisms in the activity of these drugs was evaluated with the intraperitoneal pretreatment of flumazenil (2 mg/kg). The CBZ, CBZ-F, and TOP mildly preserved neuronal viability. The CBZ-F and the reference AEDs potentiated barbiturate sleep, altered motor activities, and attenuated PTZ-induced convulsion. However, flumazenil pretreatment blocked these effects. Additional preclinical assessments could further establish the promising utility of CBZ-F in clinical settings while expanding the scope of AED formulations and designs.

Biological resilience in health and disease.

All living organisms - from single-celled prokaryotes through to invertebrates and humans - are frequently exposed to numerous challenges during their lifetime, which could damage their molecular and cellular contents and threaten their survival. Nevertheless, these diverse organisms are, on the whole, remarkably resilient to potential threats. Recent years have seen rapid advances in our mechanistic understanding of this emerging phenomenon of biological resilience, which enables cells, tissues and whole organisms to bounce back from challenges or stress. In this At a Glance article, I discuss current knowledge on the diverse molecular mechanisms driving biological resilience across scales, with particular focus on its dynamic and adaptive nature. I highlight emerging evidence that loss of biological resilience could underly numerous pathologies, including age-related frailty and degenerative disease. Finally, I present the multi-disciplinary experimental approaches that are helping to unravel the causal mechanisms of resilience and how this emerging knowledge could be harnessed therapeutically in the clinic.

New studies with stable gastric pentadecapeptide protecting gastrointestinal tract. significance of counteraction of vascular and multiorgan failure of occlusion/occlusion-like syndrome in cytoprotection/organoprotection.

Since the early 1990s, when Robert's and Szabo's cytoprotection concept had already been more than one decade old, but still not implemented in therapy, we suggest the stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 as the most relevant mediator of the cytoprotection concept. Consequently, it can translate stomach and gastrointestinal mucosal maintenance, epithelium, and endothelium cell protection to the therapy of other tissue healing (organoprotection), easily applicable, as native and stable in human gastric juice for more than 24 h. These overwhelm current clinical evidence (i.e., ulcerative colitis, phase II, no side effects, and no lethal dose (LD1) in toxicology studies), as BPC 157 therapy effectively combined various tissue healing and lesions counteraction. BPC 157 cytoprotection relevance and vascular recovery, activation of collateral pathways, membrane stabilizer, eye therapy, wound healing capability, brain-gut and gut-brain functioning, tumor cachexia counteraction, muscle, tendon, ligament, and bone disturbances counteraction, and the heart disturbances, myocardial infarction, heart failure, pulmonary hypertension, arrhythmias, and thrombosis counteraction appeared in the recent reviews. Here, as concept resolution, we review the counteraction of advanced Virchow triad circumstances by activation of the collateral rescuing pathways, depending on injury, activated azygos vein direct blood flow delivery, to counteract occlusion/occlusion-like syndromes starting with the context of alcohol-stomach lesions. Counteraction of major vessel failure (congested inferior caval vein and superior mesenteric vein, collapsed azygos vein, collapsed abdominal aorta) includes counteraction of the brain (intracerebral and intraventricular hemorrhage), heart (congestion, severe arrhythmias), lung (hemorrhage), and congestion and lesions in the liver, kidney, and gastrointestinal tract, intracranial (superior sagittal sinus), portal and caval hypertension, aortal hypotension, and thrombosis, peripherally and centrally.

Carbon dots encapsulated zeolitic imidazolate framework-8 as an enhanced multi-antioxidant for efficient cytoprotection to HK-2 cells.

Excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) can lead to the imbalance of antioxidant system in the body and cause oxidative damage to cells. It is imperative to rationally design nanomaterials with high catalytic activity and multiple antioxidant activities. Here, line peppers-derived carbon dots (CDs) is encapsulated into zeolitic imidazolate framework-8 (CDs@ZIF-8) to achieve enhanced antioxidant activities for improved protective effect on cells. This nanosystem has a broad spectrum of antioxidant properties, which can effectively remove a variety of intracellular ROS and protect cells from ROS-induced death and cytoskeleton damage. In addition, CDs@ZIF-8 can reduce malondialdehyde (MDA) level and increase the enzyme activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx), as well as the level of glutathione (GSH) in human kidney proximal tubular epithelial cells (HK-2) cells. Mechanism studies demonstrated that CDs@ZIF-8 can up-regulate the expression of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), allowing the regulation of antioxidant enzymes to further achieve antioxidant effect. Besides, CDs@ZIF-8 inhibited the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines. This work demonstrates that the constructed CDs@ZIF-8 with multi-antioxidant activity can act as a highly efficient intracellular ROS scavenger and provide potential for the application in related oxidative stress-induced diseases.

Cytoprotective agents in stroke: Still uncertainty in the next frontier.

INTRODUCTION: Despite substantial improvement of acute ischemic stroke (AIS) care with the advent of extended time windows for intravenous thrombolysis (IVT) and endovascular thrombectomy (EVT), a substantial portion of patients still suffer poor outcomes. Additional adjuvant therapies are needed but pharmacologic interactions among therapies may dictate how they could be used. We conducted a survey to determine physician decision-making regarding the use of cytoprotective agents in patients presenting with AIS. METHODS: The survey was structured, web-based, anonymous, and invite-only among physicians across the world treating patients presenting with AIS. Respondents were asked about the use of a hypothetical cytoprotective agent (that provided an added 10% benefit) in the context of a treatment interaction with IVT or its timing in relation to IVT. RESULTS: A total of 282 stroke physicians (74.9% males, mean age 46 years) participated in the survey. When the respondent could give both the cytoprotective agent and IVT with no treatment interaction, 177 (78.0%) chose to administer both. In the presence of treatment interaction, 88 (38.3%) would withhold IVT, 83 (36.1%) would withhold the cytoprotective agent and 56 (24.4%) were uncertain. Lastly, 111 (48.9%) were willing to administer the cytoprotective agent if it meant a necessary 10-minute delay in IVT administration. CONCLUSIONS: Pharmacologic interactions result in major uncertainty about cytoprotective treatment choices.

Evaluation of quercetin as a potential cytoprotector against acetaldehyde using the cultured hepatocyte model with aldehyde dehydrogenase isozyme deficiency.

Protective effect of quercetin against acetaldehyde was evaluated using the cultured hepatocyte models with aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) isozyme deficiency (aldh2-kd and aldh1a1-kd). The quercetin-induced cytoprotection against acetaldehyde in the ALDH1A1-deficient mutant (aldh1a1-kd) was weaker than that in the wild type. Furthermore, quercetin did not enhance the ALDH activity in aldh1a1-kd cells, suggesting that ALDH1A1 is involved in quercetin-induced cytoprotection.

5-HT6 receptor neutral antagonists protect astrocytes: A lesson from 2-phenylpyrrole derivatives.

The serotonin type 6 receptor (5-HT6R) displays a strong constitutive activity, suggesting it participates largely in the physiological and pathological processes controlled by the receptor. The active states of 5-HT6R engage particular signal transduction pathways that lead to different biological responses. In this study, we present the development of 5-HT6R neutral antagonists at Gs signaling built upon the 2-phenylpyrrole scaffold. Using molecular dynamics simulations, we outline the relationship between the exposure of the basic center of the molecules and their ability to target the agonist-activated state of the receptor. Our study identifies compound 30 as a potent and selective neutral antagonist at 5-HT6R-operated Gs signaling. Furthermore, we demonstrate the cytoprotective effects of 30 and structurally diverse 5-HT6R neutral antagonists at Gs signaling in C8-D1A cells and human astrocytes exposed to rotenone. This effect is not observed for 5-HT6R agonists or inverse agonists. In light of these findings, we propose compound 30 as a valuable molecular probe to study the biological effects associated with the agonist-activated state of 5-HT6R and provide insight into the glioprotective properties of 5-HT6R neutral antagonists at Gs signaling.

Understanding mitochondrial potassium channels: 33 years after discovery.

Mitochondrial investigations have extended beyond their traditional functions, covering areas such as ATP synthesis and metabolism. Mitochondria are now implicated in new functional areas such as cytoprotection, cellular senescence, tumor function and inflammation. The basis of these new areas still relies on fundamental biochemical/biophysical mitochondrial functions such as synthesis of reactive oxygen species, mitochondrial membrane potential, and the integrity of the inner mitochondrial membrane i.e., the passage of various molecules through the mitochondrial membranes. In this view transport of potassium cations, known as the potassium cycle, plays an important role. It is believed that K+ influx is mediated by various potassium channels present in the inner mitochondrial membrane. In this article, we present an overview of the key findings and characteristics of mitochondrial potassium channels derived from research of many groups conducted over the past 33 years. We propose a list of six fundamental observations and most important ideas dealing with mitochondrial potassium channels. We also discuss the contemporary challenges and future prospects associated with research on mitochondrial potassium channels.

Hydrogen Sulfide Delivery to Enhance Bone Tissue Engineering Cell Survival.

Though crucial for natural bone healing, local calcium ion (Ca2+) and phosphate ion (Pi) concentrations can exceed the cytotoxic limit leading to mitochondrial overload, oxidative stress, and cell death. For bone tissue engineering applications, H2S can be employed as a cytoprotective molecule to enhance mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) tolerance to cytotoxic Ca2+/Pi concentrations. Varied concentrations of sodium hydrogen sulfide (NaSH), a fast-releasing H2S donor, were applied to assess the influence of H2S on MSC proliferation. The results suggested a toxicity limit of 4 mM for NaSH and that 1 mM of NaSH could improve cell proliferation and differentiation in the presence of cytotoxic levels of Ca2+ (32 mM) and/or Pi (16 mM). To controllably deliver H2S over time, a novel donor molecule (thioglutamic acid-GluSH) was synthesized and evaluated for its H2S release profile. Excitingly, GluSH successfully maintained cytoprotective level of H2S over 7 days. Furthermore, MSCs exposed to cytotoxic Ca2+/Pi concentrations in the presence of GluSH were able to thrive and differentiate into osteoblasts. These findings suggest that the incorporation of a sustained H2S donor such as GluSH into CaP-based bone graft substitutes can facilitate considerable cytoprotection, making it an attractive option for complex bone regenerative engineering applications.

Oxidovanadium(V) Schiff Base Complexes Derived from Chiral 3-amino-1,2-propanediol Enantiomers: Synthesis, Spectroscopic Studies, Catalytic and Biological Activity.

Oxidovanadium(V) complexes, [(+)VOL1-5] and [(-)VOL1-5], with chiral tetradentate Schiff bases, which are products of monocondensation of S(‒)-3-amino-1,2-propanediol or R(+)-3-amino-1,2-propanediol with salicylaldehyde derivatives, have been synthesized. Different spectroscopic methods, viz. 1H and 51V NMR, IR, UV-Vis, and circular dichroism, as well as elemental analysis, have been used for their detailed characterization. Furthermore, the epoxidation of styrene, cyclohexene, and two monoterpenes, S(‒)-limonene and (‒)-α-pinene, using two oxidants, aqueous 30% H2O2 or tert-butyl hydroperoxide (TBHP) in decane, has been studied with catalytic amounts of all complexes. Finally, biological cytotoxicity studies have also been performed with these oxidovanadium(V) compounds for comparison with cis-dioxidomolybdenum(VI) Schiff base complexes with the same chiral ligands, as well as to determine the cytoprotection against the oxidative damage caused by 30% H2O2 in the HT-22 hippocampal neuronal cells in the range of their 10-100 µM concentration.

Overexpression of NDNF Improves the Cytoprotective Effects of Aged Human Bone Marrow Mesenchymal Stem Cells by Modulating Oxidative Stress and Apoptosis.

The therapeutic potential of autologous stem cell transplantation for heart repair diminishes in the elderly due to stem cell aging. Rejuvenating aged stem cells to enhance their protective effects on injured cardiomyocytes is crucial for aging patients with heart failure. In this study, we aimed to investigate whether neuron-derived neurotrophic factor (NDNF) over-expression improves the protective effect of aged stem cells for injured cardiomyocytes and explore the underlying mechanism. Human bone marrow was collected from both young and old patients, and bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) were cultured. Lentivirus expression vectors carrying NDNF genes were used to transfect aged BMSCs. Fatal hypoxia-induced injury in H9C2 cells served as an in vitro ischemia model. The conditioned medium from different BMSC groups was applied to assess the beneficial effects on hypoxia-induced damage in myocardial H9C2 cells. Results revealed that the conditioned medium of NDNF over-expressed old BMSCs increased H9C2 cell viability and reduced oxidative stress and apoptosis levels under fatal hypoxia. NDNF over-expressed old BMSCs exhibited an antiapoptotic role by upregulating the antiapoptotic gene Bcl-2 and downregulating the proapoptotic genes Bax. Additionally, the protective effects were mediated through the elevation of phosphorylated AKT. Our data support the promise of NDNF as a potential target to enhance the protective effects of autologous aged BMSCs on ischemic cardiomyocytes and then improve the curative effects of stem cell for ischemic heart injury in aged patients.

Cytoprotection as an Innovative Therapeutic Strategy to Cardiogenic Shock: Exploring the Potential of Cytidine-5-Diphosphocholine to Mitigate Target Organ Damage.

BACKGROUND: Preservation of organ function and viability is a crucial factor for survival in cardiogenic shock (CS) patients. There is not information enough on cytoprotective substances that may delay organs damage in CS. We hypothesize that cytidine-5-diphosphocholine (CDP-choline) can act as a cytoprotective pharmacological measure that diminishes the target organ damage. So, we aimed to perform a review of works carried out in our institution to evaluate the effect of therapeutic cytoprotection of the CDP-choline. SUMMARY: CDP-choline is an intermediate metabolite in the synthesis of phosphatidylcholine. It is also a useful drug for the treatment of acute ischaemic stroke, traumatic brain injury, and neurodegenerative diseases and has shown an excellent pharmacological safety profile as well. We review our institution's work and described the cytoprotective effects of CDP-choline in experimental models of heart, liver, and kidney acute damage, where this compound was shown to diminish reperfusion-induced ventricular arrhythmias, oxidative stress, apoptotic cell death, inflammation, lactic acid levels and to preserve mitochondrial function. KEY MESSAGES: We propose that additional research is needed to evaluate the impact of cytoprotective therapy adjuvant to mitigate target organ damage in patients with CS.

Artemisinin Confers Cytoprotection toward Hydrogen Peroxide-Induced Cell Apoptosis in Retinal Pigment Epithelial Cells in Correlation with the Increased Acetylation of Histone H4 at Lysine 8.

Increased oxidative stress is one of the critical pathologies inducing age-related macular degeneration (AMD), characterized by retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cell damage and death. The unbalanced acetylation and deacetylation of histones have been implicated in AMD pathogenesis or hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)-induced cell damage. Therefore, strategies aimed at controlling the balance between acetylation and deacetylation may effectively protect RPE cells from oxidative damage. Artemisinin is an antimalarial lactone drug derived from Artemisia annua, with antioxidant activity known to modulate histone acetylation in the brain, but its effect on the retina is unknown. In this study, we aimed to investigate whether Artemisinin exerts a cytoprotective effect on oxidative stress-induced apoptosis in RPE cells by regulating histone acetylation. We hypothesized that Artemisinin confers cytoprotection toward H2O2-induced apoptosis in RPE cells through this mechanism. In the present study, we found that Artemisinin at a sub-clinic dosage of 20 µM inhibited the H2O2-induced cell viability decrease and B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) protein level decrease and attenuated the H2O2-induced decrease in the histone H4 lysine (Lys) 8 acetylation [Acetyl-H4 (Lys 8)] level in the retinal RPE cell line D407. As expected, histone deacetylase inhibitor Trichostatin A at the concentration of 250 nM increased the Acetyl-H4 (Lys 8) level in D407 cells and attenuated the H2O2-induced cell viability decrease and apoptosis. Similar findings were obtained using adult RPE (ARPE)19 cells, another human RPE cell line, and primary human RPE cell cultures. In conclusion, these results confirmed our hypothesis and indicated that Artemisinin attenuated H2O2-induced apoptosis in apparent correlation with the increase in the Acetyl-H4 (Lys 8) level, which is associated with gene transcription and cell survival. By modulating histone acetylation, Artemisinin may restore the balance between acetylation and deacetylation and enhance the resistance and survival of RPE cells under oxidative stress. Our study provides novel mechanistic insights into the effect of Artemisinin on histone acetylation and apoptosis in RPE cells and supports the potential application of Artemisinin in the prevention and/or treatment of AMD.

Protective Effects of Cereal Grain Extracts on Alcohol-Induced Hepatocyte Damage.

This study investigated the protective effects of cereal grains on alcohol-induced hepatocyte damage. Cereal grains were extracted with methanol, and their radical scavenging properties and total phenolic contents were examined. Black rice extract exhibited the highest total polyphenol content and radical scavenging capacity. Treatment with sorghum extract increased the viability of cells exposed to alcohol by up to 81.6%. All cereal grain extracts decreased reactive oxygen species and malondialdehyde production and glutathione depletion in HepG2 cells exposed to ethanol. In particular, black rice and sorghum extracts exhibited greater antioxidant effects than other cereal grains. Treatment with black rice extract increased the levels of alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase of alcohol-exposed cells to control levels. Overall, black rice extract showed a greater protective effect compared with other cereal grains against alcohol exposure in HepG2 cells and could improve alcohol-induced liver problems.

Pharmacological profile of agmatine: An in-depth overview.

Agmatine, a naturally occurring polyamine derived from arginine via arginine decarboxylase, has been shown to play multifaceted roles in the mammalian body, impacting a wide range of physiological and pathological processes. This comprehensive review delineates the significant insights into agmatine's pharmacological profile, emphasizing its structure and metabolism, neurotransmission and regulation, and pharmacokinetics and function. Agmatine's biosynthesis is highly conserved across species, highlighting its fundamental role in cellular functions. In the brain, comparable to established neurotransmitters, agmatine acts as a neuromodulator, influencing the regulation, metabolism, and reabsorption of neurotransmitters that are key to mood disorders, learning, cognition, and the management of anxiety and depression. Beyond its neuromodulatory functions, agmatine exhibits protective effects across various cellular and systemic contexts, including neuroprotection, nephroprotection, cardioprotection, and cytoprotection, suggesting a broad therapeutic potential. The review explores agmatine's interaction with multiple receptor systems, including NMDA, α2-adrenoceptors, and imidazoline receptors, elucidating its role in enhancing cell viability, neuronal protection, and synaptic plasticity. Such interactions underpin agmatine's potential in treating neurological diseases and mood disorders, among other conditions. Furthermore, agmatine's pharmacokinetics, including its absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion, are discussed, underlining the complexity of its action and the potential for therapeutic application. The safety and efficacy of agmatine supplementation, demonstrated through various animal and human studies, affirm its potential as a beneficial therapeutic agent. Conclusively, the diverse physiological and therapeutic effects of agmatine, spanning neurotransmission, protection against cellular damage, and modulation of various receptor pathways, position it as a promising candidate for further research and clinical application. This review underscores the imperative for continued exploration into agmatine's mechanisms of action and its potential in pharmacology and medicine, promising advances in the treatment of numerous conditions.

Swollen Feet: Considering the Paradoxical Roles of Interleukins in Nephrotic Syndrome.

Interleukins are a family of 40 bioactive peptides that act through cell surface receptors to induce a variety of intracellular responses. While interleukins are most commonly associated with destructive, pro-inflammatory signaling in cells, some also play a role in promoting cellular resilience and survival. This review will highlight recent evidence of the cytoprotective actions of the interleukin 1 receptor (IL-1R)- and common gamma chain receptor (IL-Rγc)-signaling cytokines in nephrotic syndrome (NS). NS results from the injury or loss of glomerular visceral epithelial cells (i.e., podocytes). Although the causes of podocyte dysfunction vary, it is clear that pro-inflammatory cytokines play a significant role in regulating the propagation, duration and severity of disease. Pro-inflammatory cytokines signaling through IL-1R and IL-Rγc have been shown to exert anti-apoptotic effects in podocytes through the phosphoinositol-3-kinase (PI-3K)/AKT pathway, highlighting the potential utility of IL-1R- and IL-Rγc-signaling interleukins for the treatment of podocytopathy in NS. The paradoxical role of interleukins as drivers and mitigators of podocyte injury is complex and ill-defined. Emerging evidence of the cytoprotective role of some interleukins in NS highlights the urgent need for a nuanced understanding of their pro-survival benefits and reveals their potential as podocyte-sparing therapeutics for NS.

Unlocking the Therapeutic Potential of a Manila Clam-Derived Antioxidant Peptide: Insights into Mechanisms of Action and Cytoprotective Effects against Oxidative Stress.

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are implicated in various pathological conditions due to their ability to induce oxidative damage to cellular components. In this study, we investigated the antioxidant properties of a peptide isolated from the hydrolysate of Manila clam (Ruditapes philippinarum) muscle. Purification steps yielded RPTE2-2-4, exhibiting potent scavenging activities against DPPH•, HO•, and O2•-, akin to Vitamin C. Structural analysis showed that the isolated peptide, LFKKNLLTL, exhibited characteristics associated with antioxidant activity, including a short peptide length and the presence of aromatic and hydrophobic amino acid residues. Moreover, our study demonstrated the cytoprotective effects of the peptide against H2O2-induced oxidative stress in HepG2 cells. Pretreatment with the peptide resulted in a dose-dependent reduction in intracellular ROS levels and elevation of glutathione (GSH) levels, indicating its ability to modulate cellular defense mechanisms against oxidative damage. Furthermore, the peptide stimulated the expression of the cytoprotective enzyme heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), further reinforcing its antioxidant properties. Overall, our findings highlight the potential of the Manila clam-derived peptide as a natural antioxidant agent with therapeutic implications for oxidative stress-related diseases. Further investigation into its mechanisms of action and in vivo efficacy is warranted to validate its therapeutic potential.

The Stable Gastric Pentadecapeptide BPC 157 Pleiotropic Beneficial Activity and Its Possible Relations with Neurotransmitter Activity.

We highlight the particular aspects of the stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 pleiotropic beneficial activity (not destroyed in human gastric juice, native and stable in human gastric juice, as a cytoprotection mediator holds a response specifically related to preventing or recovering damage as such) and its possible relations with neurotransmitter activity. We attempt to resolve the shortage of the pleiotropic beneficial effects of BPC 157, given the general standard neurotransmitter criteria, in classic terms. We substitute the lack of direct conclusive evidence (i.e., production within the neuron or present in it as a precursor molecule, released eliciting a response on the receptor on the target cells on neurons and being removed from the site of action once its signaling role is complete). This can be a network of interconnected evidence, previously envisaged in the implementation of the cytoprotection effects, consistent beneficial particular evidence that BPC 157 therapy counteracts dopamine, serotonin, glutamate, GABA, adrenalin/noradrenalin, acetylcholine, and NO-system disturbances. This specifically includes counteraction of those disturbances related to their receptors, both blockade and over-activity, destruction, depletion, tolerance, sensitization, and channel disturbances counteraction. Likewise, BPC 157 activates particular receptors (i.e., VGEF and growth hormone). Furthermore, close BPC 157/NO-system relations with the gasotransmitters crossing the cell membrane and acting directly on molecules inside the cell may envisage particular interactions with receptors on the plasma membrane of their target cells. Finally, there is nerve-muscle relation in various muscle disturbance counteractions, and nerve-nerve relation in various encephalopathies counteraction, which is also exemplified specifically by the BPC 157 therapy application.