Hypotensive effect of potent angiotensin-I-converting enzyme inhibitory peptides from corn gluten meal hydrolysate: Gastrointestinal digestion and transepithelial transportation modifications.

The study examined the antihypertensive effect of peptides derived from pepsin-hydrolyzed corn gluten meal, namely KQLLGY and PPYPW, and their in silico gastrointestinal tract digested fragments, KQL and PPY, respectively. KQLLGY and PPYPW showed higher angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE)-inhibitory activity and lower ACE inhibition constant (Ki) values when compared to KQL and PPY. Only KQL showed a mild antihypertensive effect in spontaneously hypertensive rats with -7.83 and - 5.71 mmHg systolic and diastolic blood pressure values, respectively, after 8 h oral administration. During passage through Caco-2 cells, KQL was further degraded to QL, which had reduced ACE inhibitory activity. In addition, molecular dynamics revealed that the QL-ACE complex was less stable compared to the KQL-ACE. This study reveals that structural transformation during peptide permeation plays a vital role in attenuating antihypertensive effect of the ACE inhibitor peptide.

Advances in understanding and managing celiac disease: Pathophysiology and treatment strategies.

In this editorial, we comment on an article published in the recent issue of the World Journal of Gastroenterology. Celiac disease (CeD) is a disease occurring in genetically susceptible individuals, which is mainly characterized by gluten intolerance in the small intestine and clinical symptoms such as abdominal pain, diarrhea, and malnutrition. Therefore, patients often need a lifelong gluten-free diet, which greatly affects the quality of life and expenses of patients. The gold standard for diagnosis is intestinal mucosal biopsy, combined with serological and genetic tests. At present, the lack of safe, effective, and satisfactory drugs for CeD is mainly due to the complexity of its pathogenesis, and it is difficult to find a perfect target to solve the multi-level needs of patients. In this editorial, we mainly review the pathological mechanism of CeD and describe the current experimental and improved drugs for various pathological aspects.

Antioxidant capacity of fermented corn gluten meal in broiler chickens: a solid-state approach with mixed microbial fermentation.

Fermentation of feed with probiotic and biofunctional properties has gained global attention for its potential to enhance digestive absorption and improve overall functional quality. This study investigates the antioxidant capacity and expression of antioxidant-related genes in broiler chickens fed with fermented corn gluten meal (FCGM) containing mixed microbial cultures. Seventy-two male Yellow-Feathered broiler chickens were randomly assigned to 2 groups, each consisting of 3 replicates, and were fed experimental diets containing either corn gluten meal or FCGM for 42 d. The antioxidant capacity of FCGM was assessed in vivo. Chickens fed with FCGM exhibited significant increases in serum glutathione concentration, as well as enhanced activities of total superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, and catalase (CAT) in their serum. Similar trends were observed in the liver, specifically in the activities of glutathione peroxidase and CAT. Additionally, the expression levels of key antioxidant-related genes in the liver, such as glutathione synthase, superoxide dismutase 1, superoxide dismutase 2, CAT, and glutathione peroxidase 1, were examined. The results indicated that FCGM significantly enhanced antioxidant capacity in broiler chickens. This study highlights the potential benefits of utilizing solid-state fermentation with mixed microbial cultures to improve the antioxidant properties of corn gluten meal, thereby contributing to the overall health and well-being of broiler chickens.

Textural improvement of pea protein-based high-moisture extrudates with corn zein and rice starch.

High moisture extrusion allows the production of plant protein-based products, including meat analogues. Building upon our previous findings showing that zein mixed with rice starch provides the necessary textural properties to formulations, different pea protein-based formulations with varying amounts of zein and rice starch or wheat gluten (as control) were produced using high moisture extrusion and the rheological, textural, and microstructural characteristics were evaluated and associated with the secondary structure of proteins. Samples containing wheat gluten presented desirable rheological and mechanical properties in terms of texturization, which was evidenced by the generation of a layered and three-dimensional viscoelastic network. The addition of rice starch to zein significantly increased the viscoelasticity of the samples due to enhanced development of non-covalent interactions that led to higher and more stable ß-sheets content and to the formation of a fibrous and layered microstructure and a 3D network nearly like those obtained with gluten. The sole replacement of pea protein by zein was not enough to develop these desired characteristics, demonstrating the importance of the non-covalent interactions between rice starch and zein for the generation of these properties. Overall, zein and rice starch improved texturization of pea protein-based gluten-free analogues made by high moisture extrusion.

Impact of gluten intake on clinical outcomes in patients with chronic inflammatory diseases initiating biologics: Secondary analysis of the prospective multicentre BELIEVE cohort study.

Chronic inflammatory diseases (CIDs) pose a growing healthcare challenge, with a substantial proportion of patients showing inadequate response to biological treatment. There is renewed interest in dietary changes to optimize treatment regimens, with a growing body of evidence suggesting beneficial effects with adherence to a gluten-free diet. This study compared the likelihood of achieving clinical response to biological treatment after 14-16 weeks in patients with CID with high versus low-to-medium gluten intake. Secondary outcomes of interest included changes in disease activity, health-related quality of life and C-reactive protein. The study was a multicentre prospective cohort of 193 participants with a CID diagnosis (i.e. Crohn's Disease, Ulcerative Colitis, Rheumatoid Arthritis, Axial Spondyloarthritis, Psoriatic Arthritis or Psoriasis) who initiated biological treatment between 2017 and 2020. Participants were stratified based on their habitual gluten intake: the upper 33.3% (high gluten intake) and the remaining 66.6% (low-to-medium gluten intake). The proportion of patients achieving clinical response to biological treatment after 14-16 weeks was compared using logistic regression models. The median gluten intake differed significantly between groups (12.5 g/day vs. 5.9 g/day, standardized mean difference = 1.399). In total, 108 (56%) achieved clinical response to treatment, with no difference between 35 (55%) in the high gluten group and 73 (57%) in the medium-to-low gluten group (OR = 0.96 [0.51-1.79], p = 0.897). No differences were found with secondary outcomes. In conclusion, this study found no association between gluten intake and response to biological treatment in patients with CID.

Noonan Syndrome and Celiac Disease in an Adolescent With Short Stature and Delayed Puberty.

Background/Objective: We present an adolescent male with Noonan syndrome (NS) and celiac disease (CD) who attained normal adult height with growth hormone (GH) treatment and gluten-free diet (GFD). Case Report: A 15 ½ year old healthy male presented with short stature and delayed puberty. His mother and maternal grandmother were short with heights 142.2 cm and 147.3 cm, respectively. Examination showed bilateral epicanthal folds and down slanting eyes like his mother, fifth finger clinodactyly, height 147.5 cm (<1%; standard deviation score, -2.96), growth velocity 2.5 cm/y, weight 48.2 kg (11%; standard deviation score, -1.24), Tanner 2 pubic hair and Tanner 1 genitalia. Midparental target height was 169.1 cm. He had normal screening studies for GH deficiency and thyroid disorders, prepubertal gonadotropins and testosterone levels, and normal total immunoglobulin A, and elevated antitissue transglutaminase immunoglobulin A 134.7units/mL (0-20). Bone age was 13 years. Genetic evaluation revealed heterozygous missense variant of BRAF gene in him and his mother confirming a diagnosis of NS. He was diagnosed with CD by intestinal biopsy. Patient was started on GH therapy and a GFD with subsequent improvement in growth velocit (6.8-12.3 cm/y) and advancement of puberty. The patient stopped GH therapy at 17 ½ years with a height 165.9 cm. Discussion: Coexistence of NS caused by BRAF missense variant and CD has not been previously reported. Our patient attained normal adult height with GH therapy and GFD. Conclusion: NS and CD can co-occur and addressing both these disorders can help patients attain normal height potential.

Frozen dough steamed products: Deterioration mechanism, processing technology, and improvement strategies.

Fresh dough products lead to instability in product quality, high production costs, and more production time, which seriously affects the industrial production of the food industry. The frozen dough technology mitigates the problems of short shelf-life and easy deterioration of quality during storage and transportation. It has shown a series of advantages in large-scale industrialization, high-quality standardization, and chain operation. However, the further development of frozen dough is restricted by the deterioration of the main components (gluten, starch, and yeast) caused by freezing. This review summarizes the main production process of frozen steamed bread and buns, and the deterioration reasons for the main component of frozen dough. The improvement mechanisms of raw ingredients, processing technology, processing equipment, and additives on frozen dough quality were analyzed from the perspective of improving gluten network integrity and yeast freeze tolerance. From prefermented frozen raw to steamed products without thawing has become the preferred production process to improve production efficiency. Wheat flour mixed with other flour can maintain the gluten network continuity of frozen dough. The freeze tolerance of yeast was improved by treatment with yeast suspension, yeast cell encapsulation, screening hybridization, and genetic engineering. Process optimization and new technology-assisted fermentation and freezing effectively reduce freezing damage. Various additives improve the freeze resistance of the gluten-starch matrix by promoting protein cross-linking and inhibiting water migration. In addition, ice structural proteins and ice nucleating agents have been proven to change the growth morphology and formation temperature of ice crystals. More new technologies and additive synergies need to be further explored.

Dietary patterns drive loss of fiber-foraging species in the celiac disease patients gut microbiota compared to first-degree relatives.

BACKGROUND: Celiac disease is an autoimmune disorder triggered by dietary gluten in genetically predisposed individuals that primarily affects the small intestine. Studies have reported differentially abundant bacterial taxa in the gut microbiota of celiac patients compared with non-celiac controls. However, findings across studies have inconsistencies and no microbial signature of celiac disease has been defined so far. RESULTS: Here, we showed, by comparing celiac patients with their non-celiac 1st-degree relatives, that bacterial communities of related individuals have similar species occurrence and abundance compared with non-relatives, regardless the disease status. We also found in celiac patients a loss of bacterial species associated with fiber degradation, and host metabolic and immune modulation, as ruminiclostridia, ruminococci, Prevotella, and Akkermansia muciniphila species. We demonstrated that the differential abundance of bacterial species correlates to different dietary patterns observed between the two groups. For instance, Ruminiclostridium siraeum, Ruminococcus bicirculans, and Bacteroides plebeious, recognized as fiber-degraders, appear more abundant in non-celiac 1st-degree relatives, which have a vegetable consumption pattern higher than celiac patients. Pattern of servings per day also suggests a possible link between these species' abundance and daily calorie intake. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, we evidenced that a kinship approach could be valuable in unveiling potential celiac disease microbial traits, as well as the significance of dietary factors in shaping microbial profiles and their influence on disease development and progression. Our results pave the way for designing and adopting novel dietary strategies based on gluten-free fiber-enriched ingredients to improve disease management and patients' quality of life.

Establishing a novel covalent complex of wheat gluten with tea polyphenols: Structure, digestion, and action mechanism.

Plant-based proteins represent a more sustainable alternative, the approaches to modify and enhance their functionality and application are focused on. Covalent interaction could significantly modify the structure and function properties of protein. This study investigated the effects of covalent interaction between wheat gluten and tea polyphenols on the structure, aggregation, stability, and digestive properties of their covalent complex, as well as the possible action mechanism. The results showed that tea polyphenols could interact with gluten via covalent bonds (CN and/or CS), while tea polyphenols also acted as a bridge connecting gluten molecules, thus making covalent complex to show the larger particle sizes. This covalent interaction significantly changed the secondary structure, tertiary structure, and surface hydrophobicity of gluten. Moreover, covalent complex exhibited the high polyphenols bioaccessibility during in vitro digestion. The peptide bonds of covalent complex were mainly broken in gastric digestion, while the covalent bonds between tea polyphenols and gluten were completely destroyed in intestinal digestion. In addition, their digestates exhibited excellent antioxidant capability. All results suggest that wheat gluten have potential to prepare functional carrier for transporting active compounds and protecting them during digestion.

Quality and noodle-making performance of wheat flour with varied gluten strengths altered by addition of various arabinoxylans.

This study examined the effects of adding different types of arabinoxylans (AXs) to wheat flour with varying gluten strengths on flour quality and noodle-making performance, with the aim of utilizing AXs as health-enhanced ingredients. Three flours (Goso, Hojoong, and Joongmo) with low, medium, and high gluten strengths were used, along with two water-extractable AXs (E1 and E2) and one water-unextractable AX (U) with diverse molecular weights and viscosities. The addition of 2% AXs increased the water and sucrose solvent retention capacity values and decreased the gluten performance index values for all flours, with a notable effect on Goso flour by U. The dough development time was prolonged in all flours, necessitating more water for development. The sodium dodecyl sulfate sedimentation volume increased with the addition of AXs, especially with E2 and U. Pasting properties remained unaffected, suggesting a minimal impact on starch-related properties. However, noodles made with E2 and U showed deteriorated quality in terms of fresh noodle texture, weight gain, cooking water turbidity, and cooked noodle texture, in contrast to noodles made with E1 alone. Additionally, adjusting the water amount when adding U altered the textural properties, approaching that of noodles without added AXs. Overall, the impact of AXs on flour and noodle quality varied depending on their molecular weights, viscosities, and the gluten strength of the flour. Additionally, AXs could be successfully utilized by adjusting the water amount for the production of health-enhancing noodles. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Arabinoxylans, as health-promoting ingredients, can be utilized in noodle production by optimizing the water amount and mixing time.

Plant-based protein emulsions with soy protein isolate and gluten improve freeze-thaw stability and shelf life of pork meatballs.

This study investigated the effects of oil-in-water emulsions used as fat substitutes on the physicochemical properties of meatballs during frozen storage. Different formulations of fat replacers were prepared, including pork fat as the control (C), oil and water (OW), oil-in-water emulsion (E), emulsion with soy protein isolate (SE), emulsion with gluten (GE), and emulsion with soy protein isolate and gluten (SG). These fat substitutes were applied to a meatball paste. The samples were stored at -18 °C for 30 and 60 days, and their physicochemical properties were analyzed after thawing at 4 °C for 12 h. The SE formulation had the highest values for both water content and liquid holding capacity during frozen storage (P < 0.05). SE, GE, and SG showed significantly higher hardness, cohesiveness, springiness, gumminess, and chewiness than those of E during storage (P < 0.05). The vegetable protein addition treatments maintained a compact structure throughout storage. SE, GE, and SG prevented lipid and protein oxidation during frozen storage. These results demonstrated that SE, GE, and SG offer significant advantages in improving the freeze-thaw stability, liquid holding capacity, and oxidation stability of pork meatballs during long-term frozen storage. Therefore, our study suggest that plant-based protein emulsions can effectively replace animal fats while maintaining product quality, offering valuable implications for the meat processing industry.

CRISPR/Cas9-mediated multiplex gene editing of gamma and omega gliadins, paving the way for gliadin-free wheat.

Wheat is a staple cereal in the human diet. Despite its significance, an increasing percentage of the population suffers adverse reactions to wheat, which are triggered by wheat gluten, particularly the gliadin fractions. In this study, we employed CRISPR/Cas multiplexing to introduce targeted mutations into γ- and ω-gliadin genes of wheat, to produce lines deficient in one or both immunogenic gliadin fractions simultaneously. For this work, eight single guide RNAs (sgRNAs) were designed and combined into four plasmids to produce 59 modified wheat lines, of which 20 exhibited mutations in the target genes. Characterization of these lines through Sanger or NGS sequencing revealed a complex pattern of InDels, including deletions spanning multiple sgRNAs. The mutations were transmitted to the offspring, and the analysis of homozygous derived lines by RP-HPLC and monoclonal antibodies showed a 97.7% reduction in gluten content. Crossing these lines with other CRISPR/Cas lines deficient in the α-gliadins allowed multiple mutations to be combined. This work represents an important step forward in the use of CRISPR/Cas to develop gluten-free wheat.

Mechanistic study on the effect of hydroxypropyl corn starch, guar gum and compound phosphates on the freeze-thaw quality of quick-frozen kuey teow.

Kuey teow is one of the delicacies of Guangdong, China and is a gluten-free noodle dish made from rice. It has a short storage period and extending the shelf life by quick freezing induces quality deterioration due to temperature fluctuations. To improve its freeze-thaw frozen storage quality, this paper examined the effects of hydroxypropyl corn starch (HCS), guar gum (GG), and compound phosphates (CP) on the quality of quick-frozen kuey teow during freeze-thaw cycles. The mechanism was investigated by identifying changes in the moisture status, aging degree of the starch, and textural and cooking characteristics. The results showed that all three additions improved the toughness, chewiness and steaming characteristics of the kuey teow, with CP significantly enhancing chewiness. XRD and FTIR results revealed that GG more significantly inhibited the decrease of starch crystallinity, while HCS inhibited starch aging. GG, HCS and CP all improved the hydration characteristics and water holding capacity of rice starch. GG enhances the ability of starch to bind more tightly with water, resulting in a more uniform water distribution and a more continuous and tight structure of the kuey teow. This study will provide a theoretical basis for compounding and optimizing the quick-freezing of kuey teow.

Effects of fructan and gluten on gut microbiota in individuals with self-reported non-celiac gluten/wheat sensitivity-a randomised controlled crossover trial.

BACKGROUND: Individuals with non-celiac gluten/wheat sensitivity (NCGWS) experience improvement in gastrointestinal symptoms following a gluten-free diet. Although previous results have indicated that fructo-oligosaccharides (FOS), a type of short-chain fructans, were more likely to induce symptoms than gluten in self-reported NCGWS patients, the underlying mechanisms are unresolved. METHODS: Our main objective was therefore to investigate whether FOS-fructans and gluten affect the composition and diversity of the faecal microbiota (16S rRNA gene sequencing), faecal metabolites of microbial fermentation (short-chain fatty acids [SCFA]; gas chromatography with flame ionization detector), and a faecal biomarker of gut inflammation (neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin, also known as lipocalin 2, NGAL/LCN2; ELISA). In the randomised double-blind placebo-controlled crossover study, 59 participants with self-reported NCGWS underwent three different 7-day diet challenges with gluten (5.7 g/day), FOS-fructans (2.1 g/day), and placebo separately (three periods, six challenge sequences). RESULTS: The relative abundances of certain bacterial taxa were affected differently by the diet challenges. After the FOS-fructan challenge, Fusicatenibacter increased, while Eubacterium (E.) coprostanoligenes group, Anaerotruncus, and unknown Ruminococcaceae genera decreased. The gluten challenge was primarily characterized by increased abundance of Eubacterium xylanophilum group. However, no differences were found for bacterial diversity (α-diversity), overall bacterial community structure (ß-diversity), faecal metabolites (SCFA), or NGAL/LCN2. Furthermore, gastrointestinal symptoms in response to FOS-fructans were generally not linked to substantial shifts in the gut bacterial community. However, the reduction in E. coprostanoligenes group following the FOS-fructan challenge was associated with increased gastrointestinal pain. Finally, correlation analysis revealed that changes in gastrointestinal symptoms following the FOS-fructan and gluten challenges were linked to varying bacterial abundances at baseline. CONCLUSIONS: In conclusion, while FOS-fructans induced more gastrointestinal symptoms than gluten in the NCGWS patients, we did not find that substantial shifts in the composition nor function of the faecal microbiota could explain these differences in the current study. However, our results indicate that individual variations in baseline bacterial composition/function may influence the gastrointestinal symptom response to both FOS-fructans and gluten. Additionally, the change in E. coprostanoligenes group, which was associated with increased symptoms, implies that attention should be given to these bacteria in future trials investigating the impact of dietary treatments on gastrointestinal symptoms. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Clinicaltrials.gov as NCT02464150.

Allelic variations of HMW-GS and LMW-GS and quality analysis in Yannong series wheat cultivars/derivative lines.

Introduction: Gluten quality is one of the most important traits of the common wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). In Chinese wheat production, Yannong series cultivars/derivative lines possess unique characteristics and play an important role in both yield and quality contribution. Methods: To dissect their genetic basis of the gluten quality, in this study, allelic variations of high-molecular-weight glutenin subunit (HMW-GS) and low-molecular-weight glutenin subunit (LMW-GS) in 30 Yannong series wheat cultivars/derivative lines and three check cultivars were evaluated using the allele-specific molecular markers, and six crucial quality indexes were also further measured and analyzed. Results: The results demonstrated that the frequencies of HMW-GSs By8, Dx5+Dy10 and Dx5+Dy10+Dy12 in these 30 genotypes and three check cultivars accounted for 87.9%, 24.2% and 9.1%, respectively. For the allelic variations of LMW-GSs, Glu-A3a, Glu-A3b, Glu-A3c, Glu-A3f, and Glu-A3g were identified in 18, 9, 13, 11, and 2 genotypes, respectively; Glu-B3d, Glu-B3g and Glu-B3f were identified in 13, 23 and 4 genotypes, respectively. Notably, Yannong 999, containing By8 + Dx5 + Dy10, and Jinan 17 containing By8 + Dy12 both meet the national standard for high-quality wheat and belong to the category of first-class high-quality strong gluten wheat. Discussion: These findings can provide reference for wheat quality improvement and popularization in the production.

Assessing the Impact of a Gluten-Free Diet on Celiac Disease Symptoms in Children: A Comprehensive Review.

Celiac disease, a serious autoimmune disease, is triggered by the ingestion of gluten. It is associated with many gastrointestinal and extraintestinal symptoms. The cornerstone of treatment is a strict gluten-free diet (GFD). This paper collected studies that were screened between the 15th and 25th of June 2024 and were searched for from many databases and registers, including PubMed, Medline, ClinicalTrials.gov, Cochrane Library, Europe PMC, and EBSCO Open Dissertations. We have included the 12 most relevant studies that examined the effects of GFD adherence among pediatric patients with celiac disease. Evidence suggests that a GFD caused notable improvements in liver function, growth metrics, and quality of life indices. Extraintestinal symptoms such as cardiac dysfunctions and obstructive sleep apnea also showed compelling improvement. We conclude that there are substantial advantages of a GFD in children with celiac disease and call for the need for personal nutritional support to address nutritional deficiencies and long-term studies and comprehensive strategies to optimize treatment outcomes and improve the quality of life for affected children.

Comparative proteomics analysis of the mouse mini-gut organoid: insights into markers of gluten challenge from celiac disease intestinal biopsies.

Introduction: Organoid models enable three-dimensional representation of cellular systems, providing flexible and accessible research tools, and can highlight key biomolecules. Such models of the intestinal epithelium can provide significant knowledge for the study of celiac disease and provide an additional context for the nature of markers observed from patient biopsy data. Methods: Using LC-MS/MS, the proteomes of the crypt and enterocyte-like states of a mouse mini-gut organoid model were measured. The data were further compared with published biopsy data by comparing the changes induced by gluten challenge after a gluten-free diet. Results and discussion: These analyses identified 4,850 protein groups and revealed how 400 putative biomarkers of dietary challenge were differentially expressed in the organoid model. In addition to the extensive changes within the differentiated cells, the data reiterated the disruption of the crypt-villus axis after gluten challenge. The mass spectrometry data are available via ProteomeXchange with the identifier PXD025690.

Nutritional value of cereal-based gluten-free products and comparison to that of gluten containing counterparts in the Greek market.

Nutritional value of the Gluten-free products (GFPs) has been highly debated. Aiming to assess the nutritional value of the cereal-based GFPs in the Greek market, information from the nutritional label and the ingredients list, of all GFPs and their gluten-containing (GC) counterparts available in a supermarket offering the greatest availability in the capital of Greece, were recorded. The sample consisted of 913 products: 351 GFPs and 562 GCPs, classified into 12 categories (e.g., breads, melbas, breakfast cereals, cereal bars, pasta, flours, cookies). With minor exceptions, comparisons among all food categories regarding nutrient profile and nutritional claims showed mixed results, though supporting an overly comparable nutritional profile of the GFPs. Still, a quarter of all GFPs presented an unhealthy nutritional profile. The findings of the present study are highly in agreement with those of relevant studies in the literature, that do not support an inferior nutritional profile compared to GC counterparts.

Quality characteristics and fibrous structure formation mechanism of walnut protein and wheat gluten meat analogues during high-moisture extrusion cooking process.

Blending two or more materials to create better high-moisture meat analogues has been actively studied in the food science and technology field. Walnut protein is a high-quality plant-based protein resource, yet its full potential remains underexploited. Thus, this study focused on exploring the quality characteristics and fibrous structure formation mechanism of walnut protein (WP) and wheat gluten (WG) meat analogues during high-moisture extrusion cooking process. Results showed that the optimized WP and WG-blended high-moisture meat analogues exhibited a more pronounced anisotropic and oriented fibrous structure. The blending of WP and WG can protect the molecular chains from the thermal transition, and promote the aggregation of protein molecules mainly by enhancing the interaction between hydrophobic interactions and hydrogen bonds, increasing the apparent viscosity and forming protein subunits with larger molecular weights (>100 kDa) to stabilize the newly formed conformation. Additionally, the content of α-helix was the highest among the secondary structures. This study provides a theoretical basis for the application of WG and WP to produce HMMAs with rich fibrous structures.

Characterization of Plant-Based Meat Treated with Hot Air and Microwave Heating.

Plant-based meat is growing globally due to health, environmental, and animal welfare concerns, though there is a need for quality improvements. This study assessed how different ratios of wheat gluten (WG) to soy protein isolate (SPI) and various baking methods-hot air (HA), microwave (MW), and a combination of both (HA-MW)-affect the physicochemical properties of plant-based meat. Increasing the SPI from 0% to 40% significantly enhanced lightness, hardness, chewiness, water-holding capacity, moisture content, and lysine (an essential amino acid) (p ≤ 0.05). Hardness and chewiness ranged from 4.23 ± 1.19 N to 25.90 ± 2.90 N and 3.44 ± 0.94 N to 18.71 ± 1.85 N, respectively. Baking methods did not affect amino acid profiles. Compared to HA baking, MW and HA-MW baking increased lysine content (561.58-1132.50 mg/100 g and 544.85-1088.50 mg/100 g, respectively) while reducing fat and carbohydrates. These findings suggest that a 40% SPI and 60% WG ratio with microwave baking (360 W for 1 min) optimizes plant-based meat, offering benefits to both consumers and the food industry in terms of health and sustainability.