From crisis to capacity: Lessons learned from youth e-mentoring during the COVID-19 pandemic.

The COVID-19 pandemic and associated need for social isolation left in-person youth mentoring programs scrambling to keep mentees and mentors connected, and many programs turned to e-mentoring. To better understand the transition period and to inform e-mentoring practice in a post-COVID world, this study explored the experience of mentoring programs shifting to e-mentoring during the first year of the pandemic. Seven remote focus group discussions were conducted with twenty-three staff members from twenty U.S. youth mentoring organizations that used the iCouldBe e-mentoring platform during Spring/summer 2020 or Fall/Winter 2020-2021. Thematic content analysis was used to uncover insights from the data. E-mentoring was successful overall for keeping mentees and mentors in touch, especially for matches with a strong connection before the pandemic. Zoom and text messaging were the most used virtual communication methods. Programs faced many challenges but also experienced unexpected positives, including a strong interest in future e-mentoring implementation. Participants recommended that programs interested in e-mentoring start small and with intention; they also requested a central website with e-mentoring support and ways to connect with other programs and mentors. Although the literature on e-mentoring remains limited, this study contributes a picture of e-mentoring success even during a global crisis.

Spotlighting racism in schools: Teacher mentors and the mediating effect of school safety.

Youth are more likely to succeed when they feel safe at school and have access to caring relationships with adults. Systemic racism interrupts access to these assets. Within schools, racially/ethnically minoritized youth encounter policies rooted in racism, leading to decreased perceptions of school safety. Having a teacher mentor may mitigate some of the harmful effects of systemic racism and discriminatory practices. Yet, teacher mentors may not be accessible to all students. In this study, the authors tested a putative explanatory hypothesis for differences between Black and white children's access to teacher mentors. Data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health were used. Linear regression models were used to predict access to teacher mentors, and a mediational analysis was conducted to determine the effect of school safety on the relationship between race and teacher mentor access. Results indicate that students from higher SES backgrounds and those with parents who have greater educational attainment are more likely to have a teacher mentor. Furthermore, Black students are less likely than white students to have a teacher mentor, and school safety mediates that relationship. The implications of this study suggest that challenging institutional racism and structures may improve perceptions of school safety and teacher mentor accessibility.

Cultural humility development in adults serving as mentors for youth: A qualitative evidence synthesis.

This qualitative review synthesizes evidence regarding how cultural humility (i.e., critical self-reflection, challenging inequity) may be influenced by the experience of serving as a mentor in a youth program. A systematic search identified 35 qualitative studies with findings that address this question. Thematic synthesis of extracted data identified the following six themes, all but one of which pertains to ways in which serving as a mentor appeared to have enhanced the cultural humility of the adults involved: (1) humanizing others: awareness of experiential differences, (2) reflecting inward on one's own identity, biases, and opportunities, (3) connecting with others, (4) recognizing environmental influences on human development, (5) envisioning contributions to community change, and (6) counterevidence: deficit-oriented attributions. Findings indicate that mentor cultural humility development primarily entailed individual and interpersonal awareness with relatively less evidence of increased awareness of and action to change inequality. The identified themes provide promising directions for future research as well as potentially useful avenues for incorporating consideration of cultural humility more intentionally in the development and evaluation of mentoring programs for youth.

The Appa Health App for Youth Mental Health: Development and Usability Study.

BACKGROUND: Demand for adolescent mental health services has surged in the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic, and traditional models of care entailing in-person services with licensed mental health providers are inadequate to meet demand. However, research has shown that with proper training and supervision mentors can work with youth with mental health challenges like depression and anxiety and can even support the use of evidence-based strategies like cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). In our increasingly connected world, youth mentors can meet with young people on a web-based platform at their convenience, reducing barriers to care. Moreover, the internet has made evidence-based CBT skills for addressing depression and anxiety more accessible than ever. As such, when trained and supervised by licensed clinicians, mentors are an untapped resource to support youth with mental health challenges. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to develop and assess the feasibility and acceptability of Appa Health (Appa), an evidence-based mental health mentoring program for youth experiencing symptoms of depression and anxiety. This paper describes the development, pilot testing process, and preliminary quantitative and qualitative outcomes of Appa's 12-week smartphone app program which combines web-based near-peer mentorship with short-form TikTok-style videos teaching CBT skills created by licensed mental health professionals who are also social media influencers. METHODS: The development and testing processes were executed through collaboration with key stakeholders, including young people and clinical and research advisory boards. In the pilot study, young people were assessed for symptoms of depression or anxiety using standard self-report clinical measures: the Patient Health Questionnaire-8 and the Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 scales. Teenagers endorsing symptoms of depression or anxiety (n=14) were paired with a mentor (n=10) based on preferred characteristics such as gender, race or ethnicity, and lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer (LGBTQ) status. Quantitative survey data about the teenagers' characteristics, mental health, and feasibility and acceptability were combined with qualitative data assessing youth perspectives on the program, their mentors, and the CBT content. RESULTS: Participants reported finding Appa helpful, with 100% (n=14) of teenagers expressing that they felt better after the 12-week program. Over 85% (n=12) said they would strongly recommend the program to a friend. The teenagers were engaged, video chatting with mentors consistently over the 12 weeks. Metrics of anxiety and depressive symptoms reduced consistently from week 1 to week 12, supporting qualitative data suggesting that mentoring combined with CBT strategies has the potential to positively impact youth mental health and warrants further study. CONCLUSIONS: Appa Health is a novel smartphone app aiming to improve the well-being of youth and reduce anxiety and depressive symptoms through web-based mentoring and engaging CBT video content. This formative research sets the stage for a large-scale randomized controlled trial recently funded by the National Institutes of Health Small Business Innovation Research program.

Striving for safety, impact, and equity: A critical consideration of AJCP publications on formal youth mentoring programs.

In this virtual special issue (VSI) we curate and reflect upon 22 articles on formal youth mentoring previously published in the American Journal of Community Psychology (AJCP). First, we provide historical context and highlight AJCP's 2002 special issue on mentoring, which played an important role in establishing youth mentoring as a vibrant area of research. Next, we review and discuss findings from subsequent AJCP studies in three interrelated lines of inquiry: (1) the importance of facilitating high-quality mentoring relationships; (2) associations among youth's presenting needs, relationship quality, and outcomes; and (3) program practices leading to stronger, more impactful relationships. Throughout, we highlight and expand upon critical commentary from AJCP contributors, calling on the field to move away from paternalistic models that overly localize risk with youth and families without interrogating structural oppression. Our recommendations include: (1) centering critical consciousness, racial equity, and social justice in program curricula and mentor trainings; (2) respectfully engaging grassroots programs developed for and by communities of color that are underrepresented in research; (3) making meaningful efforts to recruit mentors from marginalized communities and removing barriers to their participation; and (4) examining youth's racial, ethnic, and other areas of identity development processes during mentoring.

Unlocking the transformative power of mentoring for youth development in communities, schools, and talent domains.

Mentoring is a highly individualized educational measure that can support youth development in communities, schools, and talent domains. Depending on the target population, goals, structure, and medium, mentoring for youths can differ considerably. This article first reviews the main types of mentoring programs and practices for youth development in communities, schools, and talent domains. Despite the popularity of mentoring programs, many programs fail to realize the full potential of mentoring as meta-analyses consistently show relatively small effects of mentoring. The discrepancy between the potential and actual effect of mentoring is referred to as the mentoring paradox. Crucial aspects that are held responsible for the mentoring paradox, such as adequate planning and implementation of mentoring programs, adherence to research-based mentoring practices, as well as quality assurance of mentoring programs through systematic program research and evaluation are described. Finally, implications on how to professionalize mentoring are provided for different stakeholders.

Identifying predictors of psychological well-being among volunteer mentors in Big Brothers Big Sisters.

Big Brothers Big Sisters (BBBS) facilitates mentoring relationships between youth and volunteer mentors. Although research has examined outcomes for youth in BBBS, relatively less investigation has been undertaken for volunteer outcomes. This study explored factors associated with changes in psychological well-being among BBBS volunteer mentors. Participants included 593 mentors (Mage = 31) surveyed at study baseline and 15-month follow-up. A classification and regression decision tree approach was used to predict residualized change in psychological well-being from study baseline with match length included as the first split variable, and demographic, individual, and relationship variables included as candidate predictors. Analyses indicated that mentors with longer relationships (>4.5 months) reported more positive change in psychological well-being compared with mentors with shorter relationships. Perceived quality of program supervision was a further predictor within both groups of volunteers. Findings suggest that longer relationships and greater program support may contribute to mentor well-being.

Trajectories and impact of White mentors' beliefs about racial and ethnic discrimination in a formal youth mentoring program.

To examine associations between White mentors' beliefs regarding the presence of discrimination towards Black, Indigenous, and people of Color (BIPOC) individuals and mentoring relationship outcomes, mentors' beliefs about racial/ethnic discrimination were assessed before random mentee assignment and at the end of 9 months of mentoring. White mentors matched with BIPOC youth showed greater increases in beliefs that discrimination limits opportunities for Black Americans. Stronger endorsement of the impacts of discrimination for Hispanic Americans resulted in less youth relationship anxiety when White mentors were matched with White mentees, but not when they were matched with BIPOC mentees. Last, greater increases in beliefs that discrimination limits opportunities for Black Americans resulted in less relationship anxiety for White mentors matched with White mentees, but more relationship anxiety for those matched with BIPOC mentees. Programs should assess and address mentors' racial biases to minimize harm and augment the impact of mentoring programs for all youth.

Using Observational Dyadic Methods in Youth Mentoring Research: Preliminary Evidence of the Role of Actors' and Partners' Self-disclosure in Predicting Relationship Quality.

Self-disclosure builds high quality relationships, but knowledge of self-disclosure in youth mentoring relationships is limited by a lack of research and reliance on self-reports. To demonstrate the value of observational methods and dyadic modeling of mentoring communication processes, this study examined the associations between behavioral observation of self-disclosure and self-reported relationship quality in 49 mentee-mentor dyads (mentees: 73.5% female; x̄ age = 16.2, range = 12-19; mentors: 69.4% female; x̄ age = 36.2, range = 19-59). Video-recorded observations of disclosure were coded on three dimensions: amount (number of topics and detail of disclosure), intimacy (disclosure of personal or sensitive information), and openness (willingness to disclose). More intimate mentor disclosure was associated with higher mentee relationship quality, whereas higher amount of mentor disclosure combined with low intimacy was associated with lower mentee relationship quality. Greater mentee openness correlated with higher mentor relationship quality, but more intimate mentee disclosures were associated with lower mentee relationship quality. These preliminary findings illustrate the potential of methods that enable in-depth investigation of dyadic processes to advance understanding of how behavioral processes may influence mentoring relationships.

Pathways by which case managers' match support influences youth mentoring outcomes: Testing the systemic model of youth mentoring.

Keller's systemic model of youth mentoring posits there are multiple pathways through which all stakeholders in the youth mentoring process, including the program staff who support the match (or case managers), influence youth outcomes. This study examines case managers' direct and indirect contributions to match outcomes and tests how transitive interactions facilitate a theorized sequence of mentoring interactions to effect greater closeness and length, specifically in nontargeted mentoring programs. A structural equations model of case manager contributions to match outcomes was tested using data from 758 mentor-mentee matches, supported by 73 case managers across seven mentoring agencies. Results reveal direct effects of mentor-reported match support quality on match length and indirect influences on match length through increasing youth-centeredness, goal-focused orientation, and closeness. The findings confirm the presence of multiple pathways of influence, including indirect effects on outcomes via transitive interactions in match support that scaffold youth-centeredness and goal-focused interactions in the match. Findings also suggest supervisors' evaluations of case managers may provide little information about how match support influences the nature of mentor-mentee interactions.

Do program practices matter for mentors?: How implementation of empirically supported program practices is associated with youth mentoring relationship quality.

This study investigates how the implementation of program-level practices by formal youth mentoring programs is associated with the quality of youth mentoring relationships as contexts for youth development and also examines whether this connection is mediated by the mentor-staff working alliance. Using data from mentors (n = 542) participating in multiple programs (n = 55), multilevel path models examined hypothesized direct and mediated effects. Parallel analyses were conducted with assessments of program practices from staff (n = 219). Greater exposure to program practices was associated with higher ratings of mentoring relationship satisfaction, commitment, and security and lower mentor-youth relationship negativity. The mentor-staff working alliance either partially or fully mediated these associations. Staff-reported practices predicted mentoring relationship satisfaction and commitment without mediation by the working alliance. This study suggests program practices contribute to stronger youth mentoring relationships. The findings also highlight the mentor-staff working alliance in supporting the development of positive mentoring relationships.

Striking the Balance: The Relative Benefits of Goal- and Youth-Focused Approaches to Youth Mentoring Relationships.

Targeted, goal-focused approaches to mentoring can improve behavioral and mental health outcomes than more recreational, non-specific approaches. However, a focus on goals needs to be balanced with openness to including mentees' preferences. This study builds on prior work by exploring the benefits of goal- and youth-focused approaches to mentoring relationships from the youth mentee's perspective, including their associations with relationship measures (closeness and tension) and mental health outcomes (i.e., conduct problems, emotional symptoms, and depressive symptoms). This study was a secondary analysis of data from 2165 youth participating in thirty nationally representative mentoring programs in the United States. On average, youth were 12.3-years-old (SD = 1.43, range = 9-16) and the majority were female (55%); 36.7% were Black/African American, 22.4% were White, and 23.5% were Latino/Hispanic. Path analyses revealed 1) youth- and goal-focused approaches were positively associated with closeness, 2) youth-focused approaches were negatively associated with tension, 3) goal-focused approaches were positively associated with tension. At follow-up, a stronger mentoring relationship (less tension and greater closeness) was related to positive youth outcomes. As the field of mentoring corrects for an overemphasis on intuitive approaches and moves towards more targeted directions, it should resist veering too far from what sets the field apart from skills-training models: the role of a caring relationship.

Initial perception of the mentoring role and related mentors' approach of autonomy support or control in formal youth mentoring relationships.

Mentors' initial perceptions of the mentoring role in formal youth mentoring bonds; and the subsequent characteristics of autonomy support or autonomy control in mentoring interactions developed by mentors after 5 months of mentoring experience are discussed in this paper. The data is drawn from a longitudinal phenomenological study conducted in the Czech mentoring scheme between 2010 and 2017. In-depth semi-structured interviews were collected with 10 mentoring matches over 1 year of mentoring involvement. The results of Interpretive phenomenological analysis showed differences in mentors' initial perceptions of the role, and related autonomy-supportive or autonomy-controlling characteristics in mentors' approach. The benefits and risks of resulting autonomy support or control in mentoring interactions are discussed. The results argue for the theoretical conceptualisation of a child-centred perspective in youth mentoring that aims at mentees' support of autonomy, active agency and empowement, thus arguing for further in-depth exploration of natural mentoring principles in child-centred perspective, supporting approaches such as youth-initiated mentoring, and broadening the discussion on good evidence-based mentoring practice in the EU context.

The benefits of participating in a culturally translated youth mentoring program and service-learning experience for Aotearoa New Zealand mentors.

The aim of this article is to demonstrate "mentoring through service-learning" models can be powerful avenues to support the development of emerging adult practitioners, and are scalable to new global contexts when careful attention is paid to the local culture and evidence-based principles for mentoring and service-learning. The study presents outcome findings for mentors who participated in Campus Connections Aotearoa, a culturally translated version of a US-based service-learning experience and therapeutic youth mentoring program implemented in New Zealand, based on a mixed-method, pre-post evaluation survey involving 62 ethnically diverse mentors (81% female). A large, significant increase in mentoring self-efficacy and small to moderate significant increases for attunement to others, sociability and leadership, and problem-solving and perspective-taking were found. Open-ended survey responses revealed self-reported changes in both personal and professional growth. The discussion highlights the importance of theory and evidence-driven design decisions and an intensive evidence-informed training curriculum for mentoring-based service-learning programs.

Social acceptance from peers and youth mentoring: Implications for addressing loneliness and social isolation.

Youth mentoring may be able to support lonely and socially isolated youth. This study examined the association between participating in youth mentoring programs and mentee perception of social acceptance from peers. Regression models considered the association between mentoring and peer social acceptance in terms of demographics, program features, and baseline peer relationship quality for 693 youth from 27 mentoring programs. The construct validity of a social acceptance scale was explored. The scale suggested two factors of peer social acceptance. No significant changes in peer social acceptance were observed before and after participating in mentoring programs. Trends in social acceptance indicated that positive/negative feelings in the mentor-mentee relationship were associated with positive/negative indicators of peer social acceptance. Mentoring programs may be able to help prevent loneliness and social isolation through positive aspects of the mentor-mentee relationships, but additional intervention activities are likely necessary to support lonely and socially isolated youth.

Going the distance: A longitudinal qualitative study of formal youth mentoring relationship development.

More enduring formal youth mentoring relationships tend to be more effective, but our understanding of how such relationships develop and are sustained remains limited. This prospective, qualitative study examined the development of 67 one-to-one, community-based mentoring relationships over a 2-year period. Data included interviews with mentors, youth, and the youth's parent/guardian across multiple time-points and agency case notes. Five developmental trajectories were identified: (a) continued growth, (b) initial growth that plateaued, (c) initial growth followed by decline and then recovery, (d) initial growth followed by decline with no recovery, and (e) little to no growth or connection. Matches in the continued growth and recovery groups were more enduring and experienced by participants as meaningful connections. Factors that appeared to have contributed to these different trajectories were youth interest in the mentoring relationship, mentor empathy, flexibility, and commitment, and program support.

Examining holistically the experiences of mentors in school-based programs: A logic analysis.

The article presents a Logic Analysis of the Scottish MCR ("Motivation, Commitment and Resilience") Pathways school-based mentoring scheme. MCR Pathways provides vulnerable secondary school students with one-to-one support, helping them realize their full potential through education. The perceptions of 12 mentors were explored through interviews, thematically analyzed and mapped to derive the program's Theory of Change as regards the volunteers themselves. This model was then assessed against the evidence base yielded from prior studies. The evaluation highlighted a mismatch between mentors' outcome expectations and what they actually gained from the experience. Furthermore, some themes (e.g., being driven by community concerns) turned out to be more prominent in the context of this specific scheme than in the wider literature, as opposed to other ones (e.g., developing friendships). The study generates insights into the ways to attract and retain growing numbers of volunteers, as well as to advance scientific knowledge.

Formal youth mentoring relationships in the context of risk: What is the role of caregiver-mentor collaboration?

Most research on youth mentoring relationships has focused on the mentor-mentee dyad, yet caregivers play an important role in supporting these relationships. Drawing on a large, multisite sample of youth in formal mentoring programs (N = 2165), this study investigated associations between caregiver-mentor collaboration and mentoring relationship outcomes in the context of environmental and individual youth risk factors. Analysis of novel quantitative measures assessing caregivers' experiences of the mentoring relationships revealed two factors reflecting caregivers' collaboration with mentors (caregiver involvement and mentor backing), and three factors reflecting caregivers' perceptions of mentor effectiveness (meeting youth needs, advocating for youth, and supporting youth behavior). Results indicated that greater caregiver involvement was associated with higher-quality and longer-lasting mentoring relationships. Few associations between risk and mentoring relationships were observed; however, indirect effects indicated that youth environmental risk was positively associated with caregiver involvement, which, in turn, was positively associated with mentoring relationship outcomes.

Are adults influenced by the experience of mentoring youth? A scoping review.

AIMS: A relatively large body of research exists on the effectiveness of mentoring programs directed at youth and numerous syntheses of this literature have proven useful for advancing both research and practice. Less studied, but also important is the potential for adults serving in the role of mentor to young persons to be influenced by this experience. A scoping review was conducted with the aim of identifying and critically assessing major trends in the methods and findings in this literature. METHODS: Included sources were empirical studies reporting findings that address potential influences on adults (18+) serving as mentors to youth (<18) in formal programs designed for this purpose. The initial search resulted in 3155 records and 96 were included in the review. RESULTS: Approximately half of the studies (58%) focused on younger adults (ages 18-22 years old, e.g., college students) serving as mentors; only a small minority of studies focused on adults over 35 years old (10%). Most studies were qualitative (n = 54). Studies with a quantitative component (n = 18 quantitative only; n = 24 mixed methods) exhibited a significant risk of bias for inferring effects on mentors due to limitations in study design (e.g., lack of comparison group). Studies most often addressed potential outcomes for mentors in academic/career (55%) and social (45%) domains, when findings suggested possible effects on mentors, they were nearly universally in a positive direction. CONCLUSION: Existing research, although consistent with the potential for adults to benefit from the experience of mentoring youth, has insufficient rigor and representativeness to adequately address this question. Future research should utilize more rigorous quantitative designs and samples with greater representativeness of the different stages of adult development.

One of these things is not like the other: Predictors of core and capital mentoring in adolescence.

Informal mentoring has many demonstrated impacts on young people, including increased educational attainment, economic mobility, and both physical and mental health. Emerging work on a typology within informal mentoring suggests that "core" mentors are often extended family members and provide emotional support, while "capital" mentors are connected to formal institutions and provide valued advice and social capital. The present paper contributes to this emerging body of work by examining which qualities of a young person and their environment lead to core versus capital mentoring using a nationally representative sample of youth (N = 4226). Using both a series of regression analyses and conditional inference trees, findings demonstrate the importance of racial-ethnic identity and socioeconomic status. Peabody Picture Vocabulary score, a likely indicator of socioeconomic resources, was consistently a robust indicator of capital mentoring. Implications for both practice and research are discussed.