The cytoskeletal protein profilin is an important allergen in saltwort (Salsola kali).

Pollen from Salsola kali, i.e., saltwort, Russian thistle, is a major allergen source in the coastal regions of southern Europe, in Turkey, Central Asia, and Iran. S. kali-allergic patients mainly suffer from hay-fever (i.e., rhinitis and conjunctivitis), asthma, and allergic skin symptoms. The aim of this study was to investigate the importance of individual S. kali allergen molecules. Sal k 1, Sal k 2, Sal k 3, Sal k 4, Sal k 5, and Sal k 6 were expressed in Escherichia coli as recombinant proteins containing a C-terminal hexahistidine tag and purified by nickel affinity chromatography. The purity of the recombinant allergens was analyzed by SDS-PAGE. Their molecular weight was determined by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry, and their fold and secondary structure were studied by circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy. Sera from clinically well-characterized S. kali-allergic patients were used for IgE reactivity and basophil activation experiments. S. kali allergen-specific IgE levels and IgE levels specific for the highly IgE cross-reactive profilin and the calcium-binding allergen from timothy grass pollen, Phl p 12 and Phl p 7, respectively, were measured by ImmunoCAP. The allergenic activity of natural S. kali pollen allergens was studied in basophil activation experiments. Recombinant S. kali allergens were folded when studied by CD analysis. The sum of recombinant allergen-specific IgE levels and allergen-extract-specific IgE levels was highly correlated. Sal k 1 and profilin, reactive with IgE from 64% and 49% of patients, respectively, were the most important allergens, whereas the other S. kali allergens were less frequently recognized. Specific IgE levels were highest for profilin. Of note, 37% of patients who were negative for Sal k 1 showed IgE reactivity to Phl p 12, emphasizing the importance of the ubiquitous cytoskeletal actin-binding protein, profilin, for the diagnosis of IgE sensitization in S. kali-allergic patients. rPhl p 12 and rSal k 4 showed equivalent IgE reactivity, and the clinical importance of profilin was underlined by the fact that profilin-monosensitized patients suffered from symptoms of respiratory allergy to saltwort. Accordingly, profilin should be included in the panel of allergen molecules for diagnosis and in molecular allergy vaccines for the treatment and prevention of S. kali allergy.

Micromorphological study of some Salsola species (Amaranthaceae) in Iran and its systematic significance using scanning electron microscopy.

Using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), six Salsola species from Iran were examined for their epidermis, seed, and fruit micromorphology. Among them were S. brachiata from section Heterotricha, S dendroides, S. incanescens, and S. orientalis from section Caroxylon, S. kali from section Kali, and S. turcomanica from section Physurus. Epidermal cells are divided into three types. There were diamond, irregular, and polygonal cells, as well as straight and undulated walls. Studied species of Salsola have smooth or sculptured fruit surfaces, and there are three main types of fruit surface ornamentation. There is a significant difference between these species based on the type of hair and density of the fruit. Seed shape and color have little systematic significance. The seed epidermis is composed of polygonal, elongated polygonal, irregular, and diamond cells. Although polygonal and irregular testa cells are most common, their size and shape can provide additional information and useful diagnostic characteristics at both specific and infraspecific levels. For taxonomic separation, the current study provides novel insights at micromorphological levels. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: This article reports halophyte are shown as models for adaptation to extreme habitats. These plants are placed among the ecological communities of xerophytes. Here, for the first time, the microstructural analysis of Salsola has been investigated. Additionally, it provides new insights into plant species' response to extreme conditions, as well as possible adaptation strategies at the micromorphological level.

Biocontrol Potential of Sodin 5, Type 1 Ribosome-Inactivating Protein from Salsola soda L. Seeds.

Sodin 5 is a type 1 ribosome-inactivating protein isolated from the seeds of Salsola soda L., an edible halophytic plant that is widespread in southern Europe, close to the coast. This plant, known as 'agretti', is under consideration as a new potential crop on saline soils. Considering a possible defence role of sodin 5 in the plant, we report here its antifungal activity against different halophilic and halotolerant fungi. Our results show that sodin 5 at a concentration of 40 µg/mL (1.4 µM) was able to inhibit the growth of the fungi Trimmatostromma salinum (35.3%), Candida parapsilosis (24.4%), Rhodotorula mucilaginosa (18.2%), Aspergillus flavus (12.2%), and Aureobasidium melanogenum (9.1%). The inhibition observed after 72 h was concentration-dependent. On the other hand, very slight growth inhibition was observed in the fungus Hortaea werneckii (4.2%), which commonly inhabits salterns. In addition, sodin 5 showed a cytotoxic effect on the Sf9 insect cell line, decreasing the survival of these cells to 63% at 1.0 µg/mL (34.5 nM). Structural analysis of sodin 5 revealed that its N-terminal amino acid residue is blocked. Using mass spectrometry, sodin 5 was identified as a homologous to type 1 polynucleotide:adenosine glycosylases, commonly known as ribosome-inactivating proteins from the Amaranthaceae family. Twenty-three percent of its primary structure was determined, including the catalytic site.

Designing a T-cell epitope-based vaccine using in silico approaches against the Sal k 1 allergen of Salsola kali plant.

Allergens originated from Salsola kali (Russian thistle) pollen grains are one of the most important sources of aeroallergens causing pollinosis in desert and semi-desert regions. T-cell epitope-based vaccines (TEV) are more effective among different therapeutic approaches developed to alleviate allergic diseases. The physicochemical properties, and B as well as T cell epitopes of Sal k 1 (a major allergen of S. kali) were predicted using immunoinformatic tools. A TEV was constructed using the linkers EAAAK, GPGPG and the most suitable CD4+ T cell epitopes. RS04 adjuvant was added as a TLR4 agonist to the amino (N) and carboxyl (C) terminus of the TEV protein. The secondary and tertiary structures, solubility, allergenicity, toxicity, stability, physicochemical properties, docking with immune receptors, BLASTp against the human and microbiota proteomes, and in silico cloning of the designed TEV were assessed using immunoinformatic analyses. Two CD4+ T cell epitopes of Sal k1 that had high affinity with different alleles of MHC-II were selected and used in the TEV. The molecular docking of the TEV with HLADRB1, and TLR4 showed TEV strong interactions and stable binding pose to these receptors. Moreover, the codon optimized TEV sequence was cloned between NcoI and XhoI restriction sites of pET-28a(+) expression plasmid. The designed TEV can be used as a promising candidate in allergen-specific immunotherapy against S. kali. Nonetheless, effectiveness of this vaccine should be validated through immunological bioassays.

Evaluation of air pollution (dust) tolerance index of three desert species Seidlitzia rosmarinus, Haloxylon aphyllum, and Nitraria schoberi under salinity stress.

Dust causes adverse effects on the physiological and biochemical properties of plants, and under soil salinity conditions, these effects seem to be intensified, which limits their use in the development of the green belt around or within cities. In the research, the effect of salt (0, 30, and 60 dS m-1) on air pollution (dust, 0 and 1.5 g m-2 30 days-1) tolerance index (APTI), peroxidase activity, and protein content of three desert species Seidlitzia rosmarinus, Haloxylon aphyllum, and Nitraria schoberi was investigated. The results indicated that the use of dust alone did not change the concentration of total chlorophyll in H. aphyllum, while it decreased the concentration of total chlorophyll by 18% in N. schoberi and 21% in S. rosmarinus. Under salt stress conditions, before and after applying dust, the concentration of total chlorophyll decreased in S. rosmarinus and N. schoberi plants, but there was no change in H. aphyllum. The amount of ascorbic acid, peroxide activity, and pH increased significantly with increasing salinity level before and after applying dust. Applying dust alone increased pH value only in N. schoberi and the amount of ascorbic acid and peroxidase in all three plants. Applying dust alone reduced relative water content and APTI only in N. schoberi plant and the amount of protein in all three plants. At salinity level of 60 dS m-1 and with application of dust treatment, APTI was decreased by 10, 15, and 9% compared to its control before application of dust, respectively, in H. aphyllum, N. schoberi, and S. rosmarinus plants. Therefore, it was found that N. schoberi, which may be used as a bioindicator of air quality, has a lower APTI than S. rosmarinus and H. aphyllum, which may be served as suitable sinks to survive the air pollution (the development of a design on green belt around or within the city), under conditions of simultaneous application of dust and salt.

Dunal plants as sink for anthropogenic marine litter: The entrapping role of Salsola kali L. (1753) in a Mediterranean remote beach (Sardinia, Italy).

The ability to retain anthropogenic marine litter by a halo-psammophilous plant formation dominated by a single prostrate species (Salsola kali) on a Sardinian beach was measured. We hypothesized that the anthropogenic litter (i) is trapped by plants to a greater extent than in control areas, and (ii) has more elongated size, mimicking the organic Posidonia wrack, largely occurring locally as 'banquettes'. Salsola kali patches show an apparently higher anthropogenic litter density than control sites without vegetation. Salsola kali plants trap litter items significantly longer and a larger number of size length categories than control plots. These effects may be due to the prostrate structure of the plant with small thorns at the apex. Also, litter entrapped by plants can interfere with the mechanisms of dune deposition and structuration, in turn affecting food chains by decreasing the availability of organic material for pedofauna.

Characterization of leaf trichomes and their influence on surface wettability of Salsola ferganica, an annual halophyte in the desert.

Many organisms use functional surfaces to collect water from the atmosphere. Salsola ferganica Drob. is one of the most abundant plants in desert regions and thrives in extreme environments with multiple but limited water resources, including dew and fog; however, its mechanisms of water harvesting remain unclear. We investigated trichome structural characteristics and their influence on the surface wettability of S. ferganica leaves using a variety of approaches (scanning electron microscopy, optical microscopy, immunolabelling staining, x-ray diffractometry, and infrared spectroscopy). Microstructural observations revealed that the trichomes of S. ferganica presented a curved upper part, the 'spindle node'-like structure in the middle, and the micro-grooves structure in between; such unique structures may aid in capturing moisture from the air. The physicochemical characteristics of the trichome surface, including hydrophobic functional groups, hydrophilic pectins, and low crystallinity, may enhance the adhesion of water drops to trichomes. Furthermore, we discovered that the piliferous S. ferganica leaves were more effective in retaining water than the glabrous S. aralocaspica leaves, and the dense trichome layer exhibited a significantly unwettable surface (high contact angle with droplets), whereas the individual trichomes retained water effectively (more so under drought conditions). The combination of these two properties is consistent with the 'rose petal effect', which describes rough surfaces that are hydrophobic but exhibit high adhesion with water. These factors suggest that the evolutionary optimisation of water acquisition by coupling relevant microstructures with the physicochemical properties of trichomes enables S. ferganica to survive harsh conditions in the seedling stage.

Pharmacognostical evaluation and physiochemical analysis of Salsola Kali as medicinal plant.

One of the largest genera Salsola include halophytic plants with therapeutic potential. For the treatment of various ailments, plants of the genus are acclaimed. Salsola kali is an important medicinal plant exhibiting specific phytochemical and biological makeup that is frequently overlooked. The current study aimed at the pharmacognostical evaluation of leaves and stem of Salsola kali to ensure the purity, quality, and efficacy of this valuable medicinal species. For the identification, evaluation and standardization of diagnostic attributes of intact and powdered material of Salsola kali leaves and stem, various methods including organoleptic, macroscopic, microscopic, and physicochemical analysis were employed. The plant was identified to possess significant characteristics with a view to authenticate drug. Light Microscopy (LM) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) of aerial parts of Salsola kali manifested specialized anatomical features essential for the adaptability in dry-saline environment. Upon quantitative pharmacognostic analysis of powder of leaves and stem, the moisture content of 1.3% and 11.1%, respectively was found. The total ash (%) in leaves and stem was computed to be 65.95 and 85.3, respectively. The water soluble and alcohol soluble extractive values (%) were computed to be 79.38 and 75.4 in leaves and 78.0 and 76.8 in stem, respectively. The swelling index (cm) in leaves and stem was enumerated to be 0.8 and 0.5. The current study will be helpful in the quality check and authentication of various parts of Salsola kali that can be used as principal component of herbal medicine formulation. Based on various microscopic analyses, that is, Light Microscopy and Scanning Electron Microscopy, the detailed description and valuable information on Salsola kali, a medicinal plant, has been provided. The present study can make a significant contribution in the literature as the findings may contribute to the determination of purity of Salsola kali for future perspectives.

Composition Analysis of Salsola grandis and Its Effects on Colon Cancer Cells.

BACKGROUND: The success of drug treatment of colon cancer (CC), which is in the top three in terms of incidence and mortality among all cancers, is adversely affected by reasons, such as severe side effects and chemoresistance. Clinical, epidemiological and experimental studies have indicated the need for developing new alternative drugs for the treatment of CC. Plants are an important source of traditional medicines that have proven to be highly beneficial for the treatment of CC. AIM: In this study, we aimed to reveal the antioxidant properties and anti-carcinogenic activity of Salsola grandis methanol extract (SGME) on HT-29. METHODS: For this purpose, we used spectrophotometric methods to determine the antioxidant properties of SGME and LC-MS/MS analysis to measure the phenolic acid composition. We applied 3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide, the thiazolyl blue (MTT) method, to evaluate its effects on cell viability and ELISA assay, realtime PCR, and western blot method to reveal its effects on apoptosis. RESULTS: Spectrophotometric analyzes showed that SGME has the highest phenolic acid content, inhibits plasma lipid peroxidation and shows chelating activity and radical scavenging activity. Gene and protein expression analysis revealed the effects of SGME treatment on apoptosis genes/proteins. CONCLUSION: These findings showed that SGME has anticarcinogenic activity on CC due to its antioxidant, cell viability- suppressing and apoptosis-inducing properties.

Three new compounds isolated from the whole plants of Salsola collina pall.

One new alkaloid, 6, 7-dimethoxyisoquinoline-N-oxide (1), one new benzofuran derivative, 3,7-dimethyl-6-acetyl-8-benzofuranol (2) and one new lignan, salsolains A (3), along with seven known compounds (4-10), were isolated from the whole plant of Salsola collina Pall. Their structures were elucidated by extensive analysis of spectroscopic data (IR, UV, HR-ESI-MS, 1 D and 2 D NMR), and their absolute configurations were determined by the X-ray crystallography and ECD calculation. The activities of compounds 1-10 against inflammatory cytokines IL-6 and TNF-α levels on LPS-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages were assessed, especially, compound 5 (50 µM) exhibited the most significant anti-inflammatory activity with the secretion levels of IL-6 and TNF-α at 3.87% and 4.03%, respectively.

Constitutive overexpression of EPSPS by gene duplication is involved in glyphosate resistance in Salsola tragus.

BACKGROUND: Glyphosate-resistant Salsola tragus accessions have been identified in the USA and Argentina; however, the mechanisms of glyphosate resistance have not been elucidated. The goal of this study was to determine the mechanism/s of glyphosate resistance involved in two S. tragus populations (R1 and R2) from Argentina. RESULTS: Both glyphosate-resistant populations had a six-fold lower sensitivity to glyphosate than the S population (i.e. resistance index). No evidence of differential absorption, translocation or metabolism of glyphosate was found in the R1 and R2 populations compared to a susceptible population (S). No 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS) mutations were detected, but S. tragus R1 and R2 plants had ≈14-fold higher EPSPS gene relative copy number compared to the S counterpart. In R1 and R2, EPSPS duplication entailed a greater constitutive EPSPS transcript abundance by approximately seven-fold and a basal EPSPS activity approximately three-fold higher than the S population. CONCLUSION: The current study reports EPSPS gene duplication for the first time as a mechanism of glyphosate resistance in S. tragus populations. The increase of glyphosate dose needed to kill R1 and R2 plants was linked to the EPSPS transcript abundance and level of EPSPS activity. This evidence supports the convergent evolution of the overexpression of the EPSPS gene in several Chenopodiaceae/Amaranthaceae species adapted to drought environments and the role of gene duplication as an adaptive advantage for plants to withstand stress. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Morphogenesis and cell wall composition of trichomes and their function in response to salt in halophyte Salsola ferganica.

BACKGROUND: To survive harsh environmental conditions, desert plants show various adaptions, such as the evolution of trichomes, which are protective epidermal protrusions. Currently, the morphogenesis and function of trichomes in desert plants are not well understood. Salsola ferganica is an annual halophyte distributed in cold deserts; at the seedling stage, its rod-shaped true leaves are covered with long and thick trichomes and are affected by habitat conditions. Therefore, we evaluated the trichomes on morphogenesis and cell wall composition of S. ferganica compared to Arabidopsis thaliana and cotton, related gene expression, and preliminary function in salt accumulation of the leaves. RESULTS: The trichomes of S. ferganica were initiated from the epidermal primordium, followed by two to three rounds of cell division to form a multicellular trichome, while some genes associated with them were positively involved. Cell wall composition analysis showed that different polysaccharides including heavily methyl-esterified and fully de-esterified pectins (before maturation, probably in the primary wall), xyloglucans (in the mid-early and middle stages, probably in the secondary wall), and extensin (during the whole developmental period) were detected, which were different from those found in trichomes of Arabidopsis and cotton. Moreover, trichome development was affected by abiotic stress, and might accumulate salt from the mesophyll cells and secrete outside. CONCLUSIONS: S. ferganica has multicellular, non-branched trichomes that undergo two to three rounds of cell division and are affected by abiotic stress. They have a unique cell wall composition which is different from that of Arabidopsis and cotton. Furthermore, several genes positively or negatively regulate trichome development. Our findings should contribute to our further understanding of the biogenesis and adaptation of plant accessory structures in desert plant species.

Polysaccharides of Salsola passerina: Extraction, Structural Characterization and Antioxidant Activity.

The above-ground part of the Salsola passerine was found to contain ~13% (w/w) of polysaccharides extractable with water and aqueous solutions of ammonium oxalate and sodium carbonate. The fractions extracted with aqueous sodium carbonate solutions had the highest yield. The polysaccharides of majority fractions are characterized by similar monosaccharide composition; namely, galacturonic acid and arabinose residues are the principal components of their carbohydrate chains. The present study focused on the determination of antioxidant activity of the extracted polysaccharide fractions and elucidation of the structure of polysaccharides using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. Homogalacturonan (HG), consisting of 1,4-linked residues of α-D-galactopyranosyluronic acid (GalpA), rhamnogalacturonan-I (RG-I), which contains a diglycosyl repeating unit with a strictly alternating sequence of 1,4-linked D-GalpA and 1,2-linked L-rhamnopyranose (Rhap) residues in the backbone, and arabinan, were identified as the structural units of the obtained polysaccharides. HMBC spectra showed that arabinan consisted of alternating regions formed by 3,5-substituted and 1,5-linked arabinofuranose residues, but there was no alternation of these residues in the arabinan structure. Polysaccharide fractions scavenged the 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical at 0.2-1.8 mg/mL. The correlation analysis showed that the DPPH scavenging activity of polysaccharide fractions was associated with the content of phenolic compounds (PCs).

Isolation, Characterization and Biological Action of Type-1 Ribosome-Inactivating Proteins from Tissues of Salsola soda L.

Ribosome-inactivating proteins (RIPs) are known as RNA N-glycosylases. They depurinate the major rRNA, damaging ribosomes and inhibiting protein synthesis. Here, new single-chain (type-1) RIPs named sodins were isolated from the seeds (five proteins), edible leaves (one protein) and roots (one protein) of Salsola soda L. Sodins are able to release Endo's fragment when incubated with rabbit and yeast ribosomes and inhibit protein synthesis in cell-free systems (IC50 = 4.83-79.31 pM). In addition, sodin 5, the major form isolated from seeds, as well as sodin eL and sodin R, isolated from edible leaves and roots, respectively, display polynucleotide:adenosine glycosylase activity and are cytotoxic towards the Hela and COLO 320 cell lines (IC50 = 0.41-1200 nM), inducing apoptosis. The further characterization of sodin 5 reveals that this enzyme shows a secondary structure similar to other type-1 RIPs and a higher melting temperature (Tm = 76.03 ± 0.30 °C) and is non-glycosylated, as other sodins are. Finally, we proved that sodin 5 possesses antifungal activity against Penicillium digitatum.

Weak population differentiation and high diversity in Salsola tragus in the inland Pacific Northwest, USA.

BACKGROUND: Salsola tragus is a widespread and problematic weed of semi-arid wheat production globally, and in the inland Pacific Northwest region of the USA. The species exhibits high levels of phenotypic diversity across its range and, at least in California USA, previous work has described cryptic diversity comprising a multi-species complex. Such cryptic diversity could suggest the potential for a differential response to management inputs between groups, and have important implications for the spread of herbicide resistance or other adaptive traits within populations. We used a genotyping-by-sequencing approach to characterize the population structure of S. tragus in the inland Pacific Northwest. RESULTS: Our results indicated that the population in this region is comprised of a single, tetraploid species (S. tragus sensu latu) with weak population structure on a regional scale. Isolation-by-distance appears to be the primary pattern of structure, but an independent set of weakly differentiated clusters of unknown origin were also apparent, along with a mixed mating system and high levels of largely unstructured genetic diversity. CONCLUSIONS: Despite considerable phenotypic variability within S. tragus in the region, agronomic weed managers can likely consider it as a single entity across the region, rather than a collection of cryptic subgroups with possible differential responses to management inputs or agroecosystem conditions. A lack of strong barriers to migration and gene flow mean that adaptive traits, such as herbicide resistance, can be expected to spread rapidly through populations across the region. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

The old world salsola as a source of valuable secondary metabolites endowed with diverse pharmacological activities: a review.

Salsola is an important genus in the plant kingdom with diverse traditional, industrial, and environmental applications. Salsola species are widely distributed in temperate regions and represent about 45% of desert plants. They are a rich source of diverse phytochemical classes, such as alkaloids, cardenolides, triterpenoids, coumarins, flavonoids, isoflavonoids, and phenolic acids. Salsola spp. were traditionally used as antihypertensive, anti-inflammatory, and immunostimulants. They attracted great interest from researchers as several pharmacological activities were reported, including analgesic, antipyretic, antioxidant, cytotoxic, hepatoprotective, contraceptive, antidiabetic, neuroprotective, and antimicrobial activities. Genus Salsola is one of the most notorious plant genera from the taxonomical point of view. Our study represents a comprehensive review of the previous phytochemical and biological research on the old world Salsola secies. It is designed to be a guide for future research on different plant species that still belong to this genus or have been transferred to other genera.

Selection of the Reference Gene for Expression Normalization in Salsola ferganica under Abiotic Stress.

Salsola ferganica is a natural desert herbaceous plant in the arid area of western and northwestern China. Because of its salt tolerance and drought resistance, it is of great significance in desert afforestation and sand-fixing capacity. There has been much research on the genes involved in plants under desert stresses in recent years. The application of the best internal reference genes for standardization was a critical procedure in analyzing the gene expression under different types. Even so, the reference gene has not been reported in the application of gene expression normalization of S. ferganica. In this study, nine reference genes (TUA-1726, TUA-1760, TUB, GAPDH, ACT, 50S, HSC70, APT, and U-box) in S. ferganica were adopted and analyzed under six different treatments (ABA, heat, cold, NaCl, methyl viologen (MV), and PEG). The applicability of candidate genes was evaluated by statistical software, including geNorm, NormFinder, BestKeeper, and RefFinder, based on their stability values in all the treatments. These results indicated that the simultaneous selection of two stable reference genes would fully standardize the optimization of the normalization research. To verify the feasibility of the above internal reference genes, the CT values of AP2/ERF transcription factor family genes were standardized using the most (ACT) and least (GAPDH) stable reference genes in S. ferganica seedlings under six abiotic stresses. The research showed that HSC70 and U-box were the most appropriate reference genes in ABA stressed samples, and ACT and U-box genes were the optimal references for heat-stressed samples. TUA-1726 and U-box showed the smallest value in gene expression levels of cold treatment. The internal reference groups of the best applicability for the other samples were U-box and ACT under NaCl treatment, ACT and TUA-1726 under MV stress, HSC70 and TUB under PEG treatment, and ACT in all samples. ACT and U-box showed higher stability than the other genes based on the comprehensive stability ranking of RefFinder, as determined by the geometric mean in this study. These results will contribute to later gene expression studies in other closely related species and provide an important foundation for gene expression analysis in S. ferganica.

On the hybrid origin of the C2 Salsola divaricata agg. (Amaranthaceae) from C3 and C4 parental lineages.

C2 photosynthesis is characterised using recapturing photorespiratory CO2 by RuBisCo in Kranz-like cells and is therefore physiologically intermediate between C3 and C4 photosynthesis. C2 can be interpreted as an evolutionary precursor of C4 and/or as the result of hybridisation between a C3 and C4 lineage. We compared the expression of photosynthetic traits among populations of the Salsola divaricata agg. (C2 ) from humid subtropical to arid habitats on the coasts of the Canary Islands and Morocco and subjected them to salt and drought treatments. We screened for enhanced C4 -like expression of traits related to habitat or treatment. We estimated species trees with a transcriptome dataset of Salsoleae and explored patterns of gene tree discordance. With phylogenetic networks and hybridisation analyses we tested for the hybrid origin of the Salsola divaricata agg. We observed distinct independent variation of photosynthetic traits within and among populations and no clear evidence for selection towards C4 -like trait expression in more stressful habitats or treatments. We found reticulation and gene tree incongruence in Salsoleae supporting a putative hybrid origin of the Salsola divaricata agg. C2 photosynthesis in the Salsola divaricata agg. combines traits inherited from its C3 and C4 parental lineages and seems evolutionarily stable, possibly well adapted to a wide climatic amplitude.

De novo transcriptome sequencing, assembly, and gene expression profiling of a salt-stressed halophyte (Salsola drummondii) from a saline habitat.

Salsola drummondii is a perennial habitat-indifferent halophyte growing in saline and nonsaline habitats of the Arabian hyperarid deserts. It offers an invaluable opportunity to examine the molecular mechanisms of salt tolerance. The present study was conducted to elucidate these mechanisms through transcriptome profiling of seedlings grown from seeds collected in a saline habitat. The Illumina Hiseq 2500 platform was employed to sequence cDNA libraries prepared from shoots and roots of nonsaline-treated plants (controls) and plants treated with 1200 mM NaCl. Transcriptomic comparison between salt-treated and control samples resulted in 17,363 differentially expressed genes (DEGs), including 12,000 upregulated genes (7870 in roots, 4130 in shoots) and 5363 downregulated genes (4258 in roots and 1105 in shoots). The majority of identified DEGs are known to be involved in transcription regulation (79), signal transduction (82), defense metabolism (101), transportation (410), cell wall metabolism (27), regulatory processes (392), respiration (85), chaperoning (9), and ubiquitination (98) during salt tolerance. This study identified potential genes associated with the salt tolerance of S. drummondii and demonstrated that this tolerance may depend on the induction of certain genes in shoot and root tissues. These gene expressions were validated using reverse-transcription quantitative PCR, the results of which were consistent with transcriptomics results. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study providing genetic information on salt tolerance mechanisms in S. drummondii.

Phytochemical Analysis, Pharmacological and Safety Evaluations of Halophytic Plant, Salsola cyclophylla.

Salsola cyclophylla, an edible halophyte, is traditionally used for inflammation and pain. To confirm the claimed anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties, a detailed study on respective pharmacological actions was undertaken. The activities are contemplated to arise from its phytoconstituents. The LC-MS analysis of S. cyclophylla 95% aqueous-ethanolic extract revealed the presence of 52 compounds belonging to phenols, flavonoids, coumarins, and aliphatics class. A high concentration of Mn, Fe, and Zn was detected by atomic absorption spectroscopic analysis. The ethyl acetate extract showed the highest flavonoid contents (5.94 ± 0.04 mg/g, Quercetin Equivalents) and Fe2+-chelation (52%) potential with DPPH radicals-quenching IC50 at 1.35 ± 0.16 mg/mL, while the aqueous ethanolic extract exhibited maximum phenolics contents (136.08 ± 0.12 mg/g, gallic acid equivalents) with DPPH scavenging potential at IC50 0.615 ± 0.06 mg/mL. Aqueous ethanolic extract and standard quercetin DPPH radicals scavenging's were equal potent at 10 mg/mL concentrations. The aqueous ethanolic extract showed highest analgesic effect with pain reduction rates 89.86% (p = 0.03), 87.50% (p < 0.01), and 99.66% (p = 0.0004) after 60, 90, and 120 min, respectively. Additionally, aqueous ethanolic extract exhibited the highest anti-inflammation capacity at 41.07% (p < 0.0001), 34.51% (p < 0.0001), and 24.82% (p < 0.0001) after 2, 3, and 6 h of extract's administration, respectively. The phytochemical constituents, significant anti-oxidant potential, remarkable analgesic, and anti-inflammatory bioactivities of extracts supported the traditionally claimed anti-inflammatory and analgesic plant activities.