RESUMEN
The thoracic cavities receive increasing attention in toxicology, because inhaled fibers and (nano)particles can reach these cavities and challenge the local lymphoid tissues. The thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities are controlled by the serosal immune system with its special, loosely organized lymphoid clusters, namely the fat-associated lymphoid clusters and milky spots, which together can be denoted as serosa-associated lymphoid clusters. These clusters house numerous innate lymphoid cells, namely the nonconventional, innate B lymphoid cell and innate lymphocyte type 2 populations. The fat depots in the thorax play a significant role in the serosal immunity, and they can be modulated by health issues such as metabolic syndrome. The serosal immune system operates in a unique way at the interface of the innate and acquired immunity and therefore exposure-related modulation of the system may have a distinct impact on the body's immunity. To add to the investigation of the serosal immune system in the thorax, this review describes the (micro)anatomy of the immune system in relation to exposure, with a focus on the rat and mouse as preferred species in toxicology and immunology.
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Contaminantes Atmosféricos/toxicidad , Inmunidad Innata/efectos de los fármacos , Linfocitos/efectos de los fármacos , Tejido Linfoide/efectos de los fármacos , Membrana Serosa/efectos de los fármacos , Tórax/efectos de los fármacos , Animales , Proliferación Celular/efectos de los fármacos , Humanos , Linfocitos/inmunología , Tejido Linfoide/inmunología , Ratones , Membrana Serosa/inmunología , Tórax/inmunologíaRESUMEN
The primary objective of this study was to evaluate the safety and clinical efficacy of autologous cytokine-induced killer (CIK) cells combined with cyclophosphamide in the treatment of polyneuropathy, organomegaly, endocrinopathy, monoclonal gammopathy and skin changes (POEMS) syndrome patients. We evaluated five POEMS syndrome patients treated with autologous CIK cell immunotherapy combined with cyclophosphamide from 1 May 2012 to 30 November 2014. The Overall Neuropathy Limitation Scale (ONLS), computed tomography of the chest and abdomen, ultrasound of the abdomen, serum vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) level and lymphocyte count findings in the five patients were recorded. The median age of the patients was 40 years (range: 25-62), and all the patients were male. CIK cells were generated routinely from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of all five patients, and the numbers of CIK cells increased by approximately 105-fold after 14 days of culture. All five patients (100%) responded to their neuropathy treatment, the ONLS scores were reduced by at least 1 and a paired-sample t-test revealed a significant difference (t = 5·715, P = 0·003 < 0·01). The extravascular volume overload responses indicated partial remission (PR = 60%) or stable disease (SD = 40%), and no cases of progressive disease (PD) or complete remission (CR) were observed. During clinical treatment, the serum VEGF of patient 5 decreased after one cycle of transfusion within 1 month. The lymphocyte counts of all the patients increased significantly after CIK transfusion, and a paired-sample t-test revealed a significant difference (t = 5·101, P = 0·004 < 0·01). Autologous CIK cell infusion combined with cyclophosphamide was found to be highly safe and elicited no adverse reactions. CIK cells can improve both the symptoms and quality of life, decrease serum VEGF levels and increase lymphocyte counts in patients with POEMS syndrome.
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Antineoplásicos Alquilantes/uso terapéutico , Ciclofosfamida/uso terapéutico , Células Asesinas Inducidas por Citocinas/trasplante , Inmunoterapia Adoptiva/métodos , Síndrome POEMS/terapia , Abdomen/diagnóstico por imagen , Abdomen/patología , Adulto , Proliferación Celular , Células Cultivadas , Terapia Combinada , Células Asesinas Inducidas por Citocinas/citología , Células Asesinas Inducidas por Citocinas/inmunología , Femenino , Humanos , Recuento de Linfocitos , Masculino , Persona de Mediana Edad , Síndrome POEMS/diagnóstico por imagen , Síndrome POEMS/patología , Calidad de Vida , Radiografía Abdominal , Radiografía Torácica , Estudios Retrospectivos , Tórax/diagnóstico por imagen , Tórax/inmunología , Tórax/patología , Trasplante Autólogo , Resultado del Tratamiento , Ultrasonografía , Factor A de Crecimiento Endotelial Vascular/sangreRESUMEN
To investigate clinical and radiological features of IgG4-related disease (IgG4-RD) patients with intrathoracic involvement. A prospective cohort study was performed and IgG4-RD patients were enrolled from January 2011 to March 2015 in Peking Union Medical College Hospital, in which the clinical and radiological characteristics of IgG4-RD patients with intrathoracic involvement were summarized. Out of total 248 cases with IgG4-RD, 87 cases had intrathoracic lesions, including 58 male cases and 29 female cases, with average age of 54.19â±â13.80 years. Hilar and mediastinal lymphadenopathy were the most common manifestations of IgG4-related intrathoracic disease, accounting for 52.9% (46/87). Other imaging findings of pulmonary disease included: solid nodular (25.3%), round-shaped ground-glass opacities (9.2%), alveolar-interstitial type (20.7%), bronchovascular type (23.0%), pleural effusion (4.6%), and pleural nodules or thickening (16.1%). Only 27 patients presented with respiratory symptoms, including cough, breathless, chest pain, and asthma. Compared with patients without intrathoracic disease, IgG4-related intrathoracic disease had higher IgG4 and C-reactive protein level, and higher incidence of allergy, fever, and multi-organ involvement. Most of lung interstitial disease, mediastinal mass, and bronchial thickening were sensitive to corticosteroid and immunosuppressant therapy, while 36.3% (8/22) of solitary nodular lesions were unresponsive to treatment. Eight patients were on no treatment, with 5 cases remained stable, 2 patients improved spontaneously, and 1 patient was lost follow-up. Intrathoracic lesions are not rare in patients with IgG4-RD, involving bronchial thickening, nodules, ground glass opacity, pleural thickening/effusion, lymphadenopathy, etc. Efficacy of corticosteroid and immunosuppressant therapy were noted in most of patients with lung interstitial disease, mediastinal mass, and bronchial thickening.
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Inmunoglobulina G/inmunología , Enfermedades Pulmonares/inmunología , Tórax/inmunología , Adulto , Anciano , Proteína C-Reactiva , China , Femenino , Humanos , Inmunosupresores/uso terapéutico , Enfermedades Pulmonares/diagnóstico por imagen , Enfermedades Pulmonares/tratamiento farmacológico , Enfermedades Linfáticas/diagnóstico por imagen , Enfermedades Linfáticas/tratamiento farmacológico , Enfermedades Linfáticas/inmunología , Masculino , Persona de Mediana Edad , Tomografía de Emisión de Positrones , Estudios Prospectivos , Tomografía Computarizada por Rayos XRESUMEN
BACKGROUND: The lung response to radiation exposure can involve an immediate or early reaction to the radiation challenge, including cell death and an initial immune reaction, and can be followed by a tissue injury response, of pneumonitis or fibrosis, to this acute reaction. Herein, we aimed to determine whether markers of the initial immune response, measured within days of radiation exposure, are correlated with the lung tissue injury responses occurring weeks later. METHODS: Inbred strains of mice known to be susceptible (KK/HIJ, C57BL/6J, 129S1/SvImJ) or resistant (C3H/HeJ, A/J, AKR/J) to radiation-induced pulmonary fibrosis and to vary in time to onset of respiratory distress post thoracic irradiation (from 10-23 weeks) were studied. Mice were untreated (controls) or received 18 Gy whole thorax irradiation and were euthanized at 6 h, 1d or 7 d after radiation treatment. Pulmonary CD4+ lymphocytes, bronchoalveolar cell profile & cytokine level, and serum cytokine levels were assayed. RESULTS: Thoracic irradiation and inbred strain background significantly affected the numbers of CD4+ cells in the lungs and the bronchoalveolar lavage cell differential of exposed mice. At the 7 day timepoint greater numbers of pulmonary Th1 and Th17 lymphocytes and reduced lavage interleukin17 and interferonγ levels were significant predictors of late stage fibrosis. Lavage levels of interleukin-10, measured at the 7 day timepoint, were inversely correlated with fibrosis score (R=-0.80, p=0.05), while serum levels of interleukin-17 in control mice significantly correlated with post irradiation survival time (R=0.81, p=0.04). Lavage macrophage, lymphocyte or neutrophil counts were not significantly correlated with either of fibrosis score or time to respiratory distress in the six mouse strains. CONCLUSION: Specific cytokine and lymphocyte levels, but not strain dependent lavage cell profiles, were predictive of later radiation-induced lung injury in this panel of inbred strains.
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Inmunidad Adaptativa/inmunología , Rayos gamma/efectos adversos , Linfocitos/inmunología , Fibrosis Pulmonar/etiología , Traumatismos por Radiación/etiología , Neumonitis por Radiación/etiología , Tórax/inmunología , Animales , Líquido del Lavado Bronquioalveolar/química , Citocinas/metabolismo , Ensayo de Inmunoadsorción Enzimática , Femenino , Citometría de Flujo , Ratones , Ratones Endogámicos AKR , Ratones Endogámicos C3H , Ratones Endogámicos C57BL , Tórax/efectos de la radiaciónRESUMEN
Cervical thymus mimics the thoracic thymus in supporting T-cell development and exists in a subset of mice and humans. Importantly, it remains unknown whether the cervical thymus can generate T cells that are self-tolerant in the complete absence of signals from the thoracic thymus. Using a fetal liver reconstitution model in thoracic thymectomized RAG(-/-) mice, we found that T cells could be generated without contribution from the thoracic thymus. However, these mice had decreased T cells, increased proportions of effector memory T cells and Treg phenotype cells, increased serum IgG1/2b, and increased frequency of T cells expressing IFN-γ, IL-17 or IL-10. Half of the mice that received a thoracic thymectomy and fetal liver cells, unlike sham surgery controls, developed substantial morbidity with age. Disease was associated with lymphopenia-driven activation rather than inherent defects in the cervical thymus, as both thoracic and cervical thymocytes could generate disease in lymphopenic recipients. Administration of the homeostatic cytokine IL-7 caused a rapid, transient increase in T-cell numbers and reduced the time to disease onset. Together the data suggests that the cervical thymus can function in the complete absence of the thoracic thymus; however, the T cells generated do not establish homeostasis.
Asunto(s)
Linfocitos T/inmunología , Tórax/inmunología , Timo/inmunología , Animales , Homeostasis , Inmunoglobulina G/inmunología , Interferón gamma/inmunología , Interleucina-10/inmunología , Interleucina-17/inmunología , Interleucina-7/inmunología , Ratones , Ratones Endogámicos BALB C , Ratones Endogámicos C57BL , Ratones SCID , Timo/citologíaRESUMEN
Applications of cold and warm activated cellular immunity and orientation and exploratory behavior in mice. Application of cold increased the number of turns to the left in the open field, muscle force, and activity of the food instinct, and caused an increase in the total count of peripheral blood leukocytes. Warm applications reduced the food instinct activity and stimulated the humoral immunity.
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Inmunidad Celular , Inmunidad Humoral , Tórax/inmunología , Animales , Regulación de la Temperatura Corporal , Frío , Conducta Alimentaria , Recuento de Linfocitos , Ratones , Fuerza MuscularRESUMEN
Paracoccidioidomycosis is a mycotic disease caused by a dimorphic fungus, Paracoccidioides brasiliensis (Pb), that starts with inhalation of the fungus; thus, lung cells such as DC are part of the first line of defense against this microorganism. Migration of DC to the lymph nodes is the first step in initiating T cell responses. The mechanisms involved in resistance to Pb infection are poorly understood, but it is likely that DC play a pivotal role in the induction of effector T cells that control Pb infection. In this study, we showed that after Pb Infection, an important modification of lung DC receptor expression occurred. We observed an increased expression of CCR7 and CD103 on lung DC after infection, as well as MHC-II. After Pb infection, bone marrow-derived DC as well lung DC, migrate to lymph nodes. Migration of lung DC could represent an important mechanism of pathogenesis during PCM infection. In resume our data showed that Pb induced DC migration. Furthermore, we demonstrated that bone marrow-derived DC stimulated by Pb migrate to the lymph nodes and activate a T helper (Th) response. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first reported data showing that Pb induces migration of DC and activate a T helper (Th) response.
Asunto(s)
Movimiento Celular/inmunología , Células Dendríticas/citología , Pulmón/inmunología , Ganglios Linfáticos/inmunología , Activación de Linfocitos/inmunología , Paracoccidioides/inmunología , Linfocitos T/inmunología , Animales , Transporte Biológico , Células de la Médula Ósea/citología , Recuento de Células , Células Dendríticas/inmunología , Femenino , Pulmón/microbiología , Pulmón/patología , Ganglios Linfáticos/microbiología , Ganglios Linfáticos/patología , Ratones , Ratones Endogámicos C57BL , Paracoccidioidomicosis/inmunología , Paracoccidioidomicosis/microbiología , Paracoccidioidomicosis/patología , Fenotipo , Saccharomyces cerevisiae/metabolismo , Linfocitos T/citología , Tórax/inmunologíaRESUMEN
Recent evolutionary studies have suggested that females have a more robust immune system than males. Using two damselfly species (Hetaerina americana and Argia tezpi), we tested if females produced higher immune responses (as phenoloxidase and hydrolytic enzymes), had a higher survival (using a nylon implant inserted in the abdomen and measuring survival after 24h) and fewer parasites (gregarines and water mites) than males. We also tested whether immune differences should emerge in different body areas (thorax vs. abdomen) within each sex with the prediction that only females will differ with the abdomen having a higher immune response than their thorax since the former area, for ecological and physiological reasons, may be a target zone for increased immune investment. Animals were adults of approximately the same age. In both species, females were more immunocompetent than males, but only in H. americana females were immune responses greater in the abdomen than in the thorax. However, there were no differences in survival and parasite intensity or the probability of being parasitised between the sexes in either of the two species. Thus, this study lends partial support to the principle that females are better at defending than males despite the null difference in parasitism and survival.
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Insectos/inmunología , Abdomen/fisiología , Animales , Apicomplexa/fisiología , Tamaño Corporal/inmunología , Femenino , Hidrolasas/metabolismo , Proteínas de Insectos/metabolismo , Insectos/enzimología , Insectos/parasitología , Masculino , Ácaros/fisiología , Monofenol Monooxigenasa/metabolismo , Factores Sexuales , Tasa de Supervivencia , Tórax/inmunologíaRESUMEN
Under immunogenic conditions, both the site of initial Ag exposure and consequent T cell priming in specific draining lymph nodes (LNs) imprint the ensuing immune response with lasting tissue-selective tropism. With respect to immune tolerance, whether the site of tolerance induction leads to compartmentalized or, alternatively, pervasive tolerance has not been formally investigated. Using a murine model of inhalation tolerance, we investigated whether the induction of respiratory mucosal tolerance precludes the development of de novo Th2 sensitization upon subsequent exposure to the same Ag at distant mucosal (gut) and nonmucosal (cutaneous) sites. By tracking the proliferation of CFSE-labeled OVA-TCR transgenic CD4(+) T cells upon OVA inhalation in vivo, we defined the site of tolerance induction to be restricted to the thoracic LNs. Expectedly, inhalation tolerance prevented de novo Th2 sensitization upon subsequent exposure to the same Ag at the same site. Importantly, although gut- and skin-draining LNs were not used during tolerance induction, de novo Ag-specific proliferation and Th2 differentiation in these LNs, as well as memory/effector Th2 responses in the gut (allergic diarrhea) and skin (late-phase cutaneous responses) were inhibited upon immunogenic challenge to the same Ag. Interestingly, this pervasive tolerogenic phenotype was not associated with the presence of suppressive activity throughout the lymphatics; indeed, potent suppressive activity was detected solely in the spleen. These data indicate that while inhalation tolerance is selectively induced in local thoracic LNs, its tolerogenic activity resides systemically and leads to pervasive immune tolerance in distant mucosal and nonmucosal sites.
Asunto(s)
Tolerancia Inmunológica/inmunología , Inmunidad Mucosa/inmunología , Ganglios Linfáticos/inmunología , Membrana Mucosa/inmunología , Tórax/inmunología , Administración Cutánea , Administración por Inhalación , Animales , Antígenos/administración & dosificación , Antígenos/inmunología , Antígenos/farmacología , Diferenciación Celular , Movimiento Celular , Proliferación Celular , Células Cultivadas , Diarrea , Inmunoglobulina E/inmunología , Inyecciones Intravenosas , Ratones , Ratones Transgénicos , Células Th2/citología , Células Th2/inmunología , Tórax/citología , Factores de TiempoRESUMEN
Originally defined by their patterns of cytokine production, Th1 and Th2 cells have been described more recently to express other genes differentially as well, at least in vitro. In this study we compared the expression of Th1- and Th2-associated genes directly during in vivo sensitization to ovalbumin (OVA) in Th1- and Th2-polarized models of airways inflammation. Th1-polarized airway inflammation was achieved by the intranasal instillation of adenoviral vectors (Ad) encoding granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) and interleukin (IL)-12, followed by daily aerosolizations of OVA; instillation of Ad/GM-CSF alone with OVA aerosolization led to Th2-polarized responses. Lymph nodes were obtained at various time-points, RNA extracted, and analysed by real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Consistent with reports from in vitro and human studies, mice undergoing Th1-polarized inflammation showed preferential expression of the transcription factor t-bet, the chemokines IFN-gamma inducible protein (IP)-10 and macrophage inflammatory protein 1 alpha (MIP-1-alpha), and the chemokine receptor CCR5. In contrast, the transcription factor GATA-3, the chemokines I-309 and thymus and activation regulated chemokine (TARC), and the chemokine receptors CCR3 and CCR4 were preferentially expressed in the Th2 model. Importantly, we also show that Ad/transgene expression remains compartmentalized to the lung after intranasal instillation. Flow cytometric analysis of lung myeloid dendritic cells indicated that B7.1 was expressed more strongly in the Th1 model than in the Th2 model. These studies provide a direct comparison of gene expression in in vivo Th1- and Th2-polarized models, and demonstrate that molecular events in the lymph nodes can be altered fundamentally by cytokine expression at distant mucosal sites.
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Citocinas/análisis , Pulmón/inmunología , Ganglios Linfáticos/inmunología , Células TH1/inmunología , Células Th2/inmunología , Animales , Quimiocinas/análisis , Quimiocinas/inmunología , Citocinas/inmunología , Proteínas de Unión al ADN/análisis , Células Dendríticas/inmunología , Femenino , Citometría de Flujo/métodos , Factor de Transcripción GATA3 , Expresión Génica/inmunología , Ratones , Ratones Endogámicos BALB C , Ovalbúmina/inmunología , Reacción en Cadena de la Polimerasa/métodos , Receptores de Quimiocina/análisis , Receptores de Quimiocina/inmunología , Hipersensibilidad Respiratoria/inmunología , Mucosa Respiratoria/inmunología , Proteínas de Dominio T Box , Tórax/inmunología , Transactivadores/análisis , Factores de Transcripción/análisis , Transgenes/genética , Transgenes/inmunologíaRESUMEN
We investigated immunopathogenic roles for apoptosis in acute murine silicosis. Intratracheal silica instillation induced pulmonary inflammation and enlarged thoracic lymph nodes. Lymphocytes from silica-exposed lymph nodes showed reduced mitogenic responses to T cell receptor (TCR) stimulation, and markedly increased activation-induced cell death, compared with control lymphocytes from saline-exposed lymph nodes. CD4(+) T cell death was mediated by Fas ligand, because CD4(+) T cells from Fas ligand-deficient gld mice did not undergo activation-induced apoptosis. Silica deposition also resulted in increased apoptosis associated with inflammatory infiltrates in lung parenchyma. In vivo treatment with caspase inhibitors reduced neutrophil accumulation, and alleviated inflammation in the lungs of silica-treated mice. These results suggest that silica-induced apoptosis plays an inflammatory role in the lung parenchyma, and creates immunologic abnormalities in regional lymph nodes, with pathogenic implications for the host.
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Apoptosis/inmunología , Ganglios Linfáticos/inmunología , Dióxido de Silicio/efectos adversos , Silicosis/inmunología , Enfermedad Aguda , Animales , Animales Modificados Genéticamente , Apoptosis/fisiología , Inhibidores de Caspasas , División Celular/efectos de los fármacos , Modelos Animales de Enfermedad , Inhibidores Enzimáticos/farmacología , Proteína Ligando Fas , Ganglios Linfáticos/efectos de los fármacos , Ganglios Linfáticos/patología , Linfocitos/inmunología , Macrófagos/inmunología , Glicoproteínas de Membrana/metabolismo , Ratones , Ratones Endogámicos BALB C , Neutrófilos/efectos de los fármacos , Silicosis/etiología , Silicosis/patología , Tórax/inmunología , Tórax/fisiologíaRESUMEN
We investigated the role of IFN-gamma in host defense during murine filariasis. Using the fully permissive infection of BALB/c mice with the rodent filaria Litomosoides sigmodontis, we show that interferon (IFN)-gamma is essential for encapsulation of adult filarial worms in inflammatory nodules and for normal worm clearance. IFN-gamma knockout (KO) mice had only one third of the nodules of wild-type mice but displayed a more than twofold increase in worm burden and increased microfilaremia. Neutrophil granulocytes, but not macrophages or eosinophils, appear to directly control worm load and nodule formation. Neutrophils, which we showed earlier to be essential for the encapsulation process in the thoracic cavity, where the worms reside, were diminished at this location in IFN-gamma KO compared to wild-type mice; they also displayed strongly reduced chemotactic and phagocytic activity compared to neutrophils of controls. This argues for a distinct defect in neutrophil activation accounting for the low formation of inflammatory nodules. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha, a major neutrophil-activating cytokine expressed by macrophages in the thoracic cavity around the worms, was highly induced in wild-type but absent in KO mice. Diminished activation of neutrophils seems to be a general hallmark of IFN-gamma KO mice, since neutrophils from uninfected KO mice also showed a reduction in chemotactic and phagocytic activity when induced by casein. In conclusion, these data are the first to define an IFN-gamma-dependent immune effector mechanism in murine filarial infection, i.e. neutrophil-mediated control of the adult worm load.
Asunto(s)
Filariasis/inmunología , Filarioidea , Interferón gamma/inmunología , Neutrófilos/inmunología , Animales , Quimiotaxis de Leucocito , Filariasis/sangre , Filariasis/parasitología , Filarioidea/aislamiento & purificación , Citometría de Flujo , Interferón gamma/sangre , Interferón gamma/deficiencia , Pulmón/inmunología , Macrófagos/inmunología , Ratones , Ratones Endogámicos BALB C , Ratones Noqueados , Neutrófilos/metabolismo , Fagocitosis , ARN Mensajero/análisis , Reacción en Cadena de la Polimerasa de Transcriptasa Inversa , Tórax/inmunología , Tórax/parasitología , Factor de Necrosis Tumoral alfaRESUMEN
BACKGROUND: Posttransplantation diabetes mellitus (PTDM) is a well-known complication of tacrolimus-based immunosuppression in both adult and pediatric solid organ recipients. The "natural history" of diabetes in the pediatric thoracic transplant population has not yet been described. METHODS: We identified all pediatric thoracic transplant patients receiving tacrolimus-based immunosuppression who developed PTDM. Medical records were reviewed, with a particular focus on the clinical course of PTDM and its relationship to drug weaning. RESULTS: Diabetes developed in 24 of 143 (17%) 30-day survivors of heart (12/96, 13%) and heart-lung/lung (12/ 47, 26%) transplantation. In 17 (71%) patients, the immunosuppressive regimen at the onset of PTDM also included maintenance corticosteroids. Seventeen patients demonstrated glucose intolerance before the onset of diabetes. Nine patients (38%) developed diabetes during pulsed corticosteroid therapy. Median time of onset after transplantation was 9.0 months. All patients required s.c. insulin for glucose control. The median follow-up from transplant was 49.9 months. There was a significant decrease in mean tacrolimus dosage (P<0.01), tacrolimus level (P<0.04), and steroid dosage (P<0.02) from onset of PTDM to most recent follow-up. Despite this significant reduction in immunosuppression, only 3/24 (13%) patients were successfully weaned off insulin. CONCLUSIONS: Diabetes mellitus is a common complication in pediatric thoracic transplant patients receiving tacrolimus-based immunosuppression. Insulin dependence in our population rarely resolved, even after lowering tacrolimus and steroid doses. Discontinuation of steroids did not guarantee resolution of diabetes.
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Diabetes Mellitus/etiología , Trasplante de Corazón/efectos adversos , Trasplante de Corazón-Pulmón/efectos adversos , Inmunosupresores/uso terapéutico , Trasplante de Pulmón/efectos adversos , Tacrolimus/uso terapéutico , Tórax/trasplante , Adolescente , Niño , Diabetes Mellitus/epidemiología , Progresión de la Enfermedad , Humanos , Masculino , Tórax/inmunologíaRESUMEN
We describe octopamine-immunoreactive somata and their projections in the pro- meso-, meta- and pregenital abdominal-ganglia of locusts. Immunoreactive midline somata were identified as dorsal- and ventral- unpaired median (DUM- and VUM-, respectively) neurones due to their: characteristic large size and positions of somata, primary neurites in DUM-tracts giving rise to T-junctions, and bilaterally projecting axons. In the prothoracic ganglion there are most likely 8 such cells; in the meso- and metathoracic, some 20 each; and in each individual pregenital abdominal ganglion, typically 3. All appear to project to peripheral nerves and their numbers correspond to the number of peripherally projecting DUM-cells identified to date in each ganglion. We suggest that probably all peripherally projecting DUM-cells are octopaminergic in the examined ganglia. Presumptive DUM-interneurones are not octopamine-immunoreactive, but, confirming other studies, are shown to label with an antiserum to gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA). Other octopamine-immunoreactive neurones include a pair of midline, prothoracic, anterior medial cells, not necessarily DUM-cells, and a pair of ventral lateral somata in each thoracic- and the first abdominal ganglion. The latter project intersegmentally in ventral tracts. Intersegmentally projecting octopamine-immunoreactive fibers in dorsal tracts probably arise from a prothoracic DUM-cell, which leaves through suboesophageal nerves, or descending suboesophageal DUM-cells. Thus, the octopamine-immunoreactive system of thoracic and pregenital abdominal ganglia in locust comprises all peripherally projecting DUM-cells and a plurisegmental network.