Saccharide Recognition by a Three-Arm-Shaped Host Having Preorganized Three-Dimensional Hydrogen-Bonding Sites.

Generally, cage-shaped hosts for saccharides can bind strongly to guest molecules because of the three-dimensional preorganized hydrogen-bonding sites. However, the preparation of cage molecules is often difficult because of the low yield of the macrocyclization step. Here, we report a three-arm-shaped molecule possessing pyridine-acetylene-phenol units as a new kind of host having a preorganized three-dimensional hydrogen-bonding site. This three-arm-shaped host was readily prepared compared to a cage-shaped analogue. This host associated with lipophilic glycosides to form chiral complexes, and the association constants were sufficiently high as to be comparable to those of the cage-shaped analogue. Furthermore, this host extracted native monosaccharides into a lipophilic solvent.

Preferential Recognition and Extraction to Pentoses over Hexoses by a D6h-Symmetrical Ethynylphenol Macrocycle with Six Inner Phenolic Hydroxy Groups.

A macrocycle consisting of six ethynylphenol units was developed as a host architecture for saccharides. The rigid framework of the macrocycle suppressed the intramolecular hydrogen-bonding between adjacent phenolic hydroxy groups and recognized saccharides by intermolecular hydrogen-bonding within the hole. The well-defined hydrogen-bonding sites enabled the size-selective guest recognition and showed preference to pentoses over hexoses.

Investigation of Receptor-Mediated Cyanocobalamin (Vitamin B12) Transport across the Inner Blood-Retinal Barrier Using Fluorescence-Labeled Cyanocobalamin.

The blood-to-retina supply of cyanocobalamin (vitamin B12) across the blood-retinal barrier (BRB) was investigated by synthesizing a fluorescence-labeled cyanocobalamin (Cy5-cyanocobalamin). In the in vivo analysis following internal jugular injection of Cy5-cyanocobalamin, confocal microscopy showed the distribution of Cy5-cyanocobalamin in the inner plexiform layer (IPL), the outer plexiform layer (OPL), and the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). In the in vitro analysis with TR-iBRB2 cells, an in vitro model cell line of the inner BRB, Cy5-cyanocobalamin uptake by TR-iBRB2 cells exhibited a time-dependent increase after preincubation with transcobalamin II (TCII) protein, during its residual uptake without preincubation with TCII protein. The Cy5-cyanocobalamin uptake by TR-iBRB2 cells was significantly reduced in the presence of unlabeled cyanocobalamin, chlorpromazine, and chloroquine and was also significantly reduced under Ca2+-free conditions. Confocal microscopy of the TR-iBRB2 cells showed fluorescence signals of Cy5-cyanocobalamin and GFP-TCII protein, and these signals merged with each other. The RT-PCR, Western blot, and immunohistochemistry clearly suggested the expression of TCII receptor (TCII-R) in the inner and outer BRB. These results suggested the involvement of receptor-mediated endocytosis in the blood-to-retina transport of cyanocobalamin at the inner BRB with implying its possible involvement at the outer BRB.

Nonplanar Macrocycle Consisting of Four Pyridine and Phenol Units Connected with Acetylene Bonds Displaying Preferential Binding to Maltoside over Monosaccharides.

A nonplanar macrocycle consisting of four pyridine-acetylene-phenol units was developed as a host for saccharide guest molecules. The macrocycle was found to strongly associate with a lipophilic maltose derivative, with an association constant of 107 M-1, over monosaccharide derivatives, for which much smaller association constants were determined, ranging from 103 M-1 to 104 M-1. The macrocycle was found to adopt a boat-like conformation, encapsulating ß-d-maltoside in a twisted manner through approximately seven intermolecular hydrogen bonds.

Hexaphenolic Rigid Cages Prepared by Self-Organization of C3 v Tridentates.

Coordination cages were composed by self-organization of rigid C3 v-symmetric heptaarene tridentates and Pd(II) precursors. The heptaarene framework involves one mesitylene, three phenol, and three pyridine moieties, which were connected by Suzuki coupling reactions. The treatment of the tridentates with Pd(dppp)(OTf)2 or Pd(en)(NO3)2 in a 2:3 molar ratio furnished coordination cages, which was ascertained by crystallography, 1H NMR and DOSY measurements, and ESI-TOFMS and UV-vis spectra. The cages have six phenolic hydroxy groups inside and were expected to incorporate hydrogen-bonding guest molecules such as saccharides. CD and DOSY measurements showed that octyl hexoside guests could be incorporated into the cage.

Spontaneous Helix Formation of " meta"-Ethynylphenol Oligomers by Sequential Intramolecular Hydrogen Bonding inside the Cavities.

Phenol-based oligomers linked with acetylenes at their meta positions, " meta"-ethynylphenol oligomers, were developed as a synthetic helical foldamer. The architecturally simple oligomers spontaneously formed helical higher-order structures by sequential intramolecular hydrogen bonds through the multiple phenolic hydroxy groups inside the cavities. The hydrogen bonds forced C-C≡C-C bond angles to largely bend toward the inside. Addition of chiral amines caused the helices to be chiral by electrostatic interactions between the resulting chiral ammonium cations and the phenolate anions.

Planimetry of the Orifice Area in Aortic Valve Stenosis Using Phase-Contrast Cardiac Magnetic Resonance Imaging.

Manual planimetry is a well-established method using transesophageal echocardiography (TEE) to assess the severity of aortic stenosis (AS). TEE, however, is a less than optimal approach in patients with calcified valves. Even when using cine-cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR), it is often difficult to evaluate the true border of the aortic orifice because of jet turbulence. With phase-contrast sequences of CMR, high flow signals at the aortic orifice can be clearly visualized, even in cases with severe calcification and jet turbulence. Therefore, the aims of the present study were to compare the utility of CMR using phase-contrast imaging with TEE and cine-CMR for the performance of planimetry of the aortic valve. The study cohort consisted of 30 consecutive patients with moderate or severe aortic valve stenosis documented by TEE who had undergone phase-contrast and cine-CMR for the evaluation of AS. Manual planimetry of the area of high flow signal was traced over the phase-contrast images at systolic peak, when the aortic valve is maximally opened. The results showed that the aortic valvular area (AVA) value derived from TEE correlated better with phase-contrast planimetry (r2 = 0.84, P < 0.05) than cine-mode planimetry (r2 = 0.57, P < 0.05). Bland-Altman plots indicated that the variation of measuring AVA was greater using the cine-mode method than the phase-contrast method. In conclusion, phase-contrast CMR offers a tool for evaluating the severity of aortic valve stenosis noninvasively. Phase-contrast CMR has the potential to become a routine clinical option as an alternative to TEE, at least in selected cases.

Bevacizumab-Related Microvascular Angina and Its Management with Nicorandil.

Bevacizumab, an inhibitor of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-A, is currently used to treat patients with ovarian or colon cancer. While several cardiovascular toxicities related to bevacizumab-containing regimens have been reported, the effect of bevacizumab on the coronary microcirculation has not been fully elucidated. Here we report a case of 54-year-old female patient who developed microvascular angina after a series of bevacizumab-containing chemotherapeutic regimen. The discontinuation of bevacizumab and nicorandil administration was effective in alleviating her chest discomfort and the ischemic changes on her ECG. This highlights the possibility that coronary microvascular angina can be induced in patients treated with bevacizumab-containing chemotherapy. It should also be noted that nicorandil can be effective in managing microvascular angina.

Developmental cuprizone exposure impairs oligodendrocyte lineages differentially in cortical and white matter tissues and suppresses glutamatergic neurogenesis signals and synaptic plasticity in the hippocampal dentate gyrus of rats.

Developmental cuprizone (CPZ) exposure impairs rat hippocampal neurogenesis. Here, we captured the developmental neurotoxicity profile of CPZ using a region-specific expression microarray analysis in the hippocampal dentate gyrus, corpus callosum, cerebral cortex and cerebellar vermis of rat offspring exposed to 0, 0.1, or 0.4% CPZ in the maternal diet from gestation day 6 to postnatal day (PND) 21. Transcripts of those genes identified as altered were subjected to immunohistochemical analysis on PNDs 21 and 77. Our results showed that transcripts for myelinogenesis-related genes, including Cnp, were selectively downregulated in the cerebral cortex by CPZ at ≥0.1% or 0.4% on PND 21. CPZ at 0.4% decreased immunostaining intensity for 2',3'-cyclic-nucleotide 3'-phosphodiesterase (CNPase) and CNPase(+) and OLIG2(+) oligodendrocyte densities in the cerebral cortex, whereas CNPase immunostaining intensity alone was decreased in the corpus callosum. By contrast, a striking transcript upregulation for Klotho gene and an increased density of Klotho(+) oligodendrocytes were detected in the corpus callosum at ≥0.1%. In the dentate gyrus, CPZ at ≥0.1% or 0.4% decreased the transcript levels for Gria1, Grin2a and Ptgs2, genes related to the synapse and synaptic transmission, and the number of GRIA1(+) and GRIN2A(+) hilar γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-ergic interneurons and cyclooxygenase-2(+) granule cells. All changes were reversed at PND 77. Thus, developmental CPZ exposure reversibly decreased mature oligodendrocytes in both cortical and white matter tissues, and Klotho protected white matter oligodendrocyte growth. CPZ also reversibly targeted glutamatergic signals of GABAergic interneuron to affect dentate gyrus neurogenesis and synaptic plasticity in granule cells.

Global gene expression profiles in brain regions reflecting abnormal neuronal and glial functions targeting myelin sheaths after 28-day exposure to cuprizone in rats.

Both developmental and postpubertal cuprizone (CPZ) exposure impairs hippocampal neurogenesis in rats. We previously found that developmental CPZ exposure alters the expression of genes related to neurogenesis, myelination, and synaptic transmission in specific brain regions of offspring. Here, we examined neuronal and glial toxicity profiles in response to postpubertal CPZ exposure by using expression microarray analysis in the hippocampal dentate gyrus, corpus callosum, cerebral cortex, and cerebellar vermis of 5-week-old male rats exposed to 0, 120, and 600mg/kg CPZ for 28days. Genes showing transcript upregulation were subjected to immunohistochemical analysis. We found transcript expression alterations at 600mg/kg for genes related to synaptic transmission, Ache and Prima1, and cell cycle regulation, Tfap4 and Cdkn1a, in the dentate gyrus, which showed aberrant neurogenesis in the subgranular zone. This dose downregulated myelination-related genes in multiple brain regions, whereas KLOTHO+ oligodendrocyte density was decreased only in the corpus callosum. The corpus callosum showed an increase in transcript levels for inflammatory response-related genes and in the number of CD68+ microglia, MT+ astrocytes, and TUNEL+ apoptotic cells. These results suggest that postpubertal CPZ exposure targets synaptic transmission and cell cycle regulation to affect neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus. CPZ suppressed myelination in multiple brain regions and KLOTHO-mediated oligodendrocyte maturation only in the corpus callosum. The increased number of CD68+ microglia, MT+ astrocytes, and TUNEL+ apoptotic cells in the corpus callosum may be involved in the induction of KLOTHO+ oligodendrocyte death and be a protective mechanism against myelin damage following CPZ exposure.

D3h -Symmetrical Shape-Persistent Macrocycles Consisting of Pyridine-Acetylene-Phenol Conjugates as an Efficient Host Architecture for Saccharide Recognition.

Hexagonal shape-persistent macrocycles (SPMs) consisting of three pyridine and three phenol rings linked with acetylene bonds were developed as a preorganized host for saccharide recognition by push-pull-type hydrogen bonding. Three tert-butyl or 2,4,6-triisopropylphenyl substituents were introduced on the host to suppress self-aggregation by steric hindrance. In spite of the simple architecture, association constants Ka of the host with alkyl glycoside guests reached the order of 106 m-1 on the basis of UV/Vis titration experiments. This glycoside recognition was much stronger than that in the cases of acyclic equivalent hosts because of the entropic advantage brought by preorganization of the hydrogen-bonding sites. Solid-liquid extraction and liquid-liquid transport through a liquid membrane were demonstrated by using native saccharides, and much preference to mannose was observed.

Developmental exposure to T-2 toxin reversibly affects postnatal hippocampal neurogenesis and reduces neural stem cells and progenitor cells in mice.

To determine the developmental exposure effects of T-2 toxin on postnatal hippocampal neurogenesis, pregnant ICR mice were provided a diet containing T-2 toxin at 0, 1, 3, or 9 ppm from gestation day 6 to day 21 on weaning after delivery. Offspring were maintained through postnatal day (PND) 77 without T-2 toxin exposure. In the hippocampal dentate gyrus of male PND 21 offspring, GFAP(+) and BLBP(+) type-1 stem cells and PAX6(+) and TBR2(+) type-2 progenitor cells decreased in the subgranular zone (SGZ) at 9 and ≥3 ppm, respectively, in parallel with increased apoptosis at ≥3 ppm. In the dentate hilus, reelin(+) γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-ergic interneurons increased at 9 ppm, suggesting reflection of neuronal mismigration. T-2 toxin decreased transcript levels of cholinergic and glutamate receptor subunits (Chrna4, Chrnb2 and Gria2) and glutamate transporter (Slc17a6) in the dentate gyrus, suggesting decreased cholinergic signals on hilar GABAergic interneurons innervating type-2 cells and decreased glutamatergic signals on type-1 and type-2 cells. T-2 toxin decreased SGZ cells expressing stem cell factor (SCF) and increased cells accumulating malondialdehydes. Neurogenesis-related changes disappeared on PND 77, suggesting that T-2 toxin reversibly affects neurogenesis by inducing apoptosis of type-1 and type-2 cells with different threshold levels. Decreased cholinergic and glutamatergic signals may decrease type-2 cells at ≥3 ppm. Additionally, decreased SCF/c-Kit interactions and increased oxidative stress may decrease type-1 and type-2 cells at 9 ppm. The no-observed-adverse-effect level for offspring neurogenesis was determined to be 1 ppm (0.14-0.49 mg/kg body weight/day).

Onset of hepatocarcinogen-specific cell proliferation and cell cycle aberration during the early stage of repeated hepatocarcinogen administration in rats.

We have previously reported that a 28-day treatment of carcinogens evoking target cell proliferation activates G1 /S checkpoint function and apoptosis, as well as induction of aberrant ubiquitin D (Ubd) expression, suggesting disruptive spindle checkpoint function, in rats. The present study aimed to determine the onset time of rat liver cells to undergo carcinogen-specific cell cycle aberration and proliferation. Animals were treated orally with a hepatocarcinogenic dose of methyleugenol or thioacetamide for 3, 7 or 28 days. For comparison, some animals were subjected to partial hepatectomy or treated with noncarcinogenic hepatotoxicants (acetaminophen, α-naphthyl isothiocyanate or promethazine). Carcinogen-specific liver cell kinetics appeared at day 28 as evident by increases of cell proliferation, p21(Cip1+) cells, phosphorylated-Mdm2(+) cells and cleaved caspase 3(+) cells, and upregulation of DNA damage-related genes. Hepatocarcinogens also downregulated Rbl2 and upregulated Cdkn1a and Mdm2, and decreased Ubd(+) cells co-expressing phosphorylated-histone H3 (p-Histone H3) and p-Histone H3(+) cell ratio within the Ki-67(+) proliferating population. These results suggest that it takes 28 days to induce hepatocarcinogen-specific early withdrawal of proliferating cells from M phase due to disruptive spindle checkpoint function as evidenced by reduction of Ubd(+) cells staying at M phase. Disruption of G1 /S checkpoint function reflected by downregulation of Rbl2 as well as upregulation of Mdm2 suggestive of sequestration of retinoblastoma protein is responsible for the facilitation of carcinogen-induced cell proliferation at day 28. Accumulation of DNA damage probably in association with facilitation of p53 degradation by activation of Mdm2 may be a prerequisite for aberrant p21(Cip1) activation, which is responsible for apoptosis.

Maternal exposure to hexachlorophene targets intermediate-stage progenitor cells in the hippocampal neurogenesis involving myelin vacuolation of cholinergic and glutamatergic inputs in mice.

Hexachlorophene (HCP) has been shown to induce myelin vacuolation due to intramyelinic edema of the nerve fibers in animal neural tissue. We investigated the maternal exposure effect of HCP on hippocampal neurogenesis in the offspring of pregnant mice supplemented with 0 (control), 33 or 100 ppm HCP in diet from gestational day 6 to day 21 after delivery. On postnatal day (PND) 21, offspring as examined in males exhibited decreased granule cell lineage populations expressing paired box 6, sex-determining region Y-box 2 and eomesodermin in the hippocampal subgranular zone (SGZ) accompanied by myelin vacuolation involving white matter tracts of the hippocampal fimbria at ≥ 33 ppm. However, SGZ cellular populations expressing brain lipid binding protein and doublecortin were unchanged at any dose. Transcript expression of cholinergic receptor genes, Chrna4 and Chrnb2, and glutamate receptor genes, Grm1 and Grin2d, examined at 100 ppm, decreased in the dentate gyrus. HCP exposure did not alter the number of proliferating or apoptotic cells in the SGZ, or reelin- or calcium-binding protein-expressing γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)ergic interneurons in the dentate hilus, on PND 21 and PND 77. All neurogenesis-related changes observed in HCP-exposed offspring on PND 21 disappeared on PND 77, suggesting that maternal HCP exposure at ≥ 33 ppm reversibly decreased type 2 intermediate-stage progenitor cells in the hippocampal neurogenesis. Myelin vacuolation might be responsible for changes in neurogenesis possibly by reducing nerve conduction velocity of cholinergic inputs from the septal-hippocampal pathway to granule cell lineages and/or GABAergic interneurons, and of glutamatergic inputs to granule cell lineages.

Cuprizone decreases intermediate and late-stage progenitor cells in hippocampal neurogenesis of rats in a framework of 28-day oral dose toxicity study.

Developmental exposure to cuprizone (CPZ), a demyelinating agent, impairs intermediate-stage neurogenesis in the hippocampal dentate gyrus of rat offspring. To investigate the possibility of alterations in adult neurogenesis following postpubertal exposure to CPZ in a framework of general toxicity studies, CPZ was orally administered to 5-week-old male rats at 0, 120, or 600mg/kg body weight/day for 28days. In the subgranular zone (SGZ), 600mg/kg CPZ increased the number of cleaved caspase-3(+) apoptotic cells. At ≥120mg/kg, the number of SGZ cells immunoreactive for TBR2, doublecortin, or PCNA was decreased, while that for SOX2 was increased. In the granule cell layer, CPZ at ≥120mg/kg decreased the number of postmitotic granule cells immunoreactive for NEUN, CHRNA7, ARC or FOS. In the dentate hilus, CPZ at ≥120mg/kg decreased phosphorylated TRKB(+) interneurons, although the number of reelin(+) interneurons was unchanged. At 600mg/kg, mRNA levels of Bdnf and Chrna7 were decreased, while those of Casp4, Casp12 and Trib3 were increased in the dentate gyrus. These data suggest that CPZ in a scheme of 28-day toxicity study causes endoplasmic reticulum stress-mediated apoptosis of granule cell lineages, resulting in aberrations of intermediate neurogenesis and late-stage neurogenesis and following suppression of immediate early gene-mediated neuronal plasticity. Suppression of BDNF signals to interneurons caused by decreased cholinergic signaling may play a role in these effects of CPZ. The effects of postpubertal CPZ on neurogenesis were similar to those observed with developmental exposure, except for the lack of reelin response, which may contribute to a greater decrease in SGZ cells.

Native Mannose-Dominant Extraction by Pyridine-Phenol Alternating Oligomers Having an Extremely Efficient Repeating Motif of Hydrogen-Bonding Acceptors and Donors.

Pyridine-phenol alternating oligomers in which pyridine and phenol moieties are alternatingly linked through acetylene bonds at the 2,6-positions of the aromatic rings were designed and synthesized. The pyridine nitrogen atom and the neighboring phenolic hydroxyl group were oriented so that they do not form an intramolecular hydrogen bond but cooperatively act as hydrogen-bonding acceptor and donor in a push-pull fashion for the hydroxyl group of saccharides. The longer oligomer strongly bound to lipophilic glycosides in 1,2-dichloroethane, and association constants approached 10(8) M(-1) . Moreover, the oligomer extracted native saccharides from a solid phase to apolar organic solvents up to the extent of an equal amount of the oligomer and showed mannose-dominant extraction among naturally abundant hexoses. The oligomer bound to native saccharides even in 20 % DMSO-containing 1,2-dichloroethane and exhibited association constants of greater than 10 M(-1) for D-mannose and D-glucose.

Glycosyl-Templated Chiral Helix Stapling of Ethynylpyridine Oligomers by Alkene Metathesis between Inter-Pitch Side Chains.

Ethynylpyridine polymers and oligomers consisting of 4-substituted pyridine rings linked by acetylene bonds at the 2- and 6-positions have been investigated. Ethynylpyridine oligomers covalently linked with a glycosyl chiral template form chiral helical complexes by intramolecular hydrogen bonding, in which the chirality of the template is translated to the helix. With a view to fixation of the chiral architecture, D/L-galactosyl- and D/L-mannosyl-linked ethynylpyridine oligomers have been developed with 4-(3-butenyloxy)pyridine units having alkene side chains. The helical structures are successfully stapled by alkene metathesis of the side chains. Subsequent removal of the chiral templates by acidolysis produces template-free stapled oligomers. The chiral, template-free, stapled oligomers show chiral helicity, which is resistant to polar solvents and heating.

Highly efficient stabilisation of meta-ethynylpyridine polymers with amide side chains in water by coordination of rare-earth metals.

An amphiphilic meta-ethynylpyridine polymer with chiral amide side chains was developed. The polymer was prepared by sequential Sonogashira reactions, and the product was soluble in polar and apolar solvents. The additive effects of metal salts on the polymer were examined in water and aqueous EtOH on the basis of UV-vis and CD spectra. The enhancement of the positive Cotton effect and hypochromism around 360 nm occurred by the addition of various metal salts, indicating the coordination of the cations to the amide side chains of the polymer to stabilise the helical structure. Among them, rare-earth metal salts, especially Sc(OTf)3 showed more efficient additive effects probably because of its strong coordination ability even in water. Positive cooperativity was observed for the coordination of Sc(OTf)3 to the polymer in aqueous EtOH.

Maternal exposure to 3,3'-iminodipropionitrile targets late-stage differentiation of hippocampal granule cell lineages to affect brain-derived neurotrophic factor signaling and interneuron subpopulations in rat offspring.

3,3'-Iminodipropionitrile (IDPN) causes neurofilament (NF)-filled swellings in the proximal segments of many large-caliber myelinated axons. This study investigated the effect of maternal exposure to IDPN on hippocampal neurogenesis in rat offspring using pregnant rats supplemented with 0 (controls), 67 or 200 ppm IDPN in drinking water from gestational day 6 to day 21 after delivery. On postnatal day (PND) 21, female offspring subjected to analysis had decreased parvalbumin(+), reelin(+) and phospho-TrkB(+) interneurons in the dentate hilus at 200 ppm and increased granule cell populations expressing immediate-early gene products, Arc or c-Fos, at ≥ 67 ppm. mRNA expression in the dentate gyrus examined at 200 ppm decreased with brain-derived neurotrophic factor (Bdnf) and very low density lipoprotein receptor. Immunoreactivity for phosphorylated NF heavy polypeptide decreased in the molecular layer of the dentate gyrus and the stratum radiatum of the cornu ammonis (CA) 3, portions showing axonal projections from mossy cells and pyramidal neurons, at 200 ppm on PND 21, whereas immunoreactivity for synaptophysin was unchanged in the dentate gyrus. Observed changes all disappeared on PND 77. There were no fluctuations in the numbers of apoptotic cells, proliferating cells and subpopulations of granule cell lineage in the subgranular zone on PND 21 and PND 77. Thus, maternal IDPN exposure may reversibly affect late-stage differentiation of granule cell lineages involving neuronal plasticity as evident by immediate-early gene responses to cause BDNF downregulation resulting in a reduction in parvalbumin(+) or reelin(+) interneurons and suppression of axonal plasticity in the mossy cells and CA3 pyramidal neurons.

Exposure to MnCl2 · 4H2O during development induces activation of microglial and perivascular macrophage populations in the hippocampal dentate gyrus of rats.

Developmental exposure to Mn caused Mn accumulation in the brain tissue and transient disruption of granule cell neurogenesis, targeting the late stage differentiation of progenitor cells in the subgranular zone of the hippocampal dentate gyrus of rats. Because neurogenesis is influenced by proinflammatory responses, this study was performed to determine whether Mn exposure causes microglial activation in the dentate hilus, a region anatomically close to the subgranular zone of the dentate gyrus. Pregnant rats were treated with dietary MnCl2 · 4H2O at 32, 160 or 800 ppm from gestational day 10 to day 21 after delivery. An immunohistochemical analysis revealed increases in Iba1(+) microglia in the hilus on postnatal day 21 following exposure to MnCl2 · 4H2O in a dose-unrelated manner at 32 and at 800 ppm and an increase in CD163(+) macrophage at 800 ppm in the hilus. Real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction analysis revealed increases in the mRNA levels of Il1α, Il6, Nos2 and Tnf after 800 ppm MnCl2 · 4H2O. These results suggest that activation of microglia and perivascular macrophages occurs in the hilus after developmental exposure to MnCl2 · 4H2O at 800 ppm, and probably involves the disruption of neurogenesis through the accumulation of Mn in the brain tissue.