Endothelial PlexinD1 signaling instructs spinal cord vascularization and motor neuron development.

How the vascular and neural compartment cooperate to achieve such a complex and highly specialized structure as the central nervous system is still unclear. Here, we reveal a crosstalk between motor neurons (MNs) and endothelial cells (ECs), necessary for the coordinated development of MNs. By analyzing cell-to-cell interaction profiles of the mouse developing spinal cord, we uncovered semaphorin 3C (Sema3C) and PlexinD1 as a communication axis between MNs and ECs. Using cell-specific knockout mice and in vitro assays, we demonstrate that removal of Sema3C in MNs, or its receptor PlexinD1 in ECs, results in premature and aberrant vascularization of MN columns. Those vascular defects impair MN axon exit from the spinal cord. Impaired PlexinD1 signaling in ECs also causes MN maturation defects at later stages. This study highlights the importance of a timely and spatially controlled communication between MNs and ECs for proper spinal cord development.

Caspase-8 in endothelial cells maintains gut homeostasis and prevents small bowel inflammation in mice.

The gut has a specific vascular barrier that controls trafficking of antigens and microbiota into the bloodstream. However, the molecular mechanisms regulating the maintenance of this vascular barrier remain elusive. Here, we identified Caspase-8 as a pro-survival factor in mature intestinal endothelial cells that is required to actively maintain vascular homeostasis in the small intestine in an organ-specific manner. In particular, we find that deletion of Caspase-8 in endothelial cells results in small intestinal hemorrhages and bowel inflammation, while all other organs remained unaffected. We also show that Caspase-8 seems to be particularly needed in lymphatic endothelial cells to maintain gut homeostasis. Our work demonstrates that endothelial cell dysfunction, leading to the breakdown of the gut-vascular barrier, is an active driver of chronic small intestinal inflammation, highlighting the role of the intestinal vasculature as a safeguard of organ function.

Protein Phosphatase 2A Mediates YAP Activation in Endothelial Cells Upon VEGF Stimulation and Matrix Stiffness.

Angiogenesis is an essential process during development. Abnormal angiogenesis also contributes to many disease conditions such as tumor and retinal diseases. Previous studies have established the Hippo signaling pathway effector Yes-associated protein (YAP) as a crucial regulator of angiogenesis. In ECs, activated YAP promotes endothelial cell proliferation, migration and sprouting. YAP activity is regulated by vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and mechanical cues such as extracellular matrix (ECM) stiffness. However, it is unclear how VEGF or ECM stiffness signal to YAP, especially how dephosphorylation of YAP occurs in response to VEGF stimulus or ECM stiffening. Here, we show that protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) is required for this process. Blocking PP2A activity abolishes VEGF or ECM stiffening mediated YAP activation. Systemic administration of a PP2A inhibitor suppresses YAP activity in blood vessels in developmental and pathological angiogenesis mouse models. Consistently, PP2A inhibitor also inhibits sprouting angiogenesis. Mechanistically, PP2A directly interacts with YAP, and this interaction requires proper cytoskeleton dynamics. These findings identify PP2A as a crucial mediator of YAP activation in ECs and hence as an important regulator of angiogenesis.

Oligodendrocyte precursor cell specification is regulated by bidirectional neural progenitor-endothelial cell crosstalk.

Neural-derived signals are crucial regulators of CNS vascularization. However, whether the vasculature responds to these signals by means of elongating and branching or in addition by building a feedback response to modulate neurodevelopmental processes remains unknown. In this study, we identified bidirectional crosstalk between the neural and the vascular compartment of the developing CNS required for oligodendrocyte precursor cell specification. Mechanistically, we show that neural progenitor cells (NPCs) express angiopoietin-1 (Ang1) and that this expression is regulated by Sonic hedgehog. We demonstrate that NPC-derived Ang1 signals to its receptor, Tie2, on endothelial cells to induce the production of transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGFß1). Endothelial-derived TGFß1, in turn, acts as an angiocrine molecule and signals back to NPCs to induce their commitment toward oligodendrocyte precursor cells. This work demonstrates a true bidirectional collaboration between NPCs and the vasculature as a critical regulator of oligodendrogenesis.

STAT3-YAP/TAZ signaling in endothelial cells promotes tumor angiogenesis.

The nuclear translocation and activity of the cotranscriptional activators YAP and TAZ (YAP/TAZ) in endothelial cells (ECs) are crucial during developmental angiogenesis. Here, we studied the role of YAP/TAZ signaling in ECs in tumor angiogenesis and found that the expression of YAP/TAZ and downstream target genes in ECs correlated with tumor vascularization in human colorectal carcinomas and skin melanoma. Treatment with the YAP/TAZ inhibitor verteporfin reduced vessel density and tumor progression in a mouse colorectal cancer (CRC) model. Conditional deletion of YAP/TAZ in ECs reduced tumor angiogenesis and growth in a mouse B16-F10 melanoma model. Using cultured ECs and mice with EC-specific ablation, we showed that signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) was required for the activation of YAP/TAZ in tumor-associated ECs. Moreover, we showed that STAT3-mediated signaling promoted YAP/TAZ activity and that the nuclear shuttling machinery for STAT3 was also required for YAP/TAZ nuclear translocation. Together, our data highlight the role of YAP/TAZ as critical players in ECs during tumor angiogenesis and provide insight into the signaling pathways leading to their activation.

The angiopoietin-Tie2 pathway regulates Purkinje cell dendritic morphogenesis in a cell-autonomous manner.

Neuro-vascular communication is essential to synchronize central nervous system development. Here, we identify angiopoietin/Tie2 as a neuro-vascular signaling axis involved in regulating dendritic morphogenesis of Purkinje cells (PCs). We show that in the developing cerebellum Tie2 expression is not restricted to blood vessels, but it is also present in PCs. Its ligands angiopoietin-1 (Ang1) and angiopoietin-2 (Ang2) are expressed in neural cells and endothelial cells (ECs), respectively. PC-specific deletion of Tie2 results in reduced dendritic arborization, which is recapitulated in neural-specific Ang1-knockout and Ang2 full-knockout mice. Mechanistically, RNA sequencing reveals that Tie2-deficient PCs present alterations in gene expression of multiple genes involved in cytoskeleton organization, dendritic formation, growth, and branching. Functionally, mice with deletion of Tie2 in PCs present alterations in PC network functionality. Altogether, our data propose Ang/Tie2 signaling as a mediator of intercellular communication between neural cells, ECs, and PCs, required for proper PC dendritic morphogenesis and function.

Motor neurons control blood vessel patterning in the developing spinal cord.

Formation of a precise vascular network within the central nervous system is of critical importance to assure delivery of oxygen and nutrients and for accurate functionality of neuronal networks. Vascularization of the spinal cord is a highly stereotypical process. However, the guidance cues controlling blood vessel patterning in this organ remain largely unknown. Here we describe a new neuro-vascular communication mechanism that controls vessel guidance in the developing spinal cord. We show that motor neuron columns remain avascular during a developmental time window, despite expressing high levels of the pro-angiogenic vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). We describe that motor neurons express the VEGF trapping receptor sFlt1 via a Neuropilin-1-dependent mechanism. Using a VEGF gain-of-function approach in mice and a motor neuron-specific sFlt1 loss-of-function approach in chicken, we show that motor neurons control blood vessel patterning by an autocrine mechanism that titrates motor neuron-derived VEGF via their own expression of sFlt1.

"Lest we forget you--methylene blue...".

Methylene blue (MB), the first synthetic drug, has a 120-year-long history of diverse applications, both in medical treatments and as a staining reagent. In recent years there was a surge of interest in MB as an antimalarial agent and as a potential treatment of neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease (AD), possibly through its inhibition of the aggregation of tau protein. Here we review the history and medical applications of MB, with emphasis on recent developments.