Aging reduces manual dexterity and force production asymmetries between the hands.

Age-related effects on motor asymmetry provide insight into changes in cortical activation during aging. To investigate potential changes in manual performance associated with aging, we conducted the Jamar hand function test and the Purdue Pegboard test on young and older adults. All tests indicated reduced motor asymmetry in the older group. Further analysis suggested that a significant decline in dominant (right) hand function resulted in less asymmetric performance in older adults. The finding is inconsistent with the application of the HAROLD model in the motor domain, which assumes improved performance in the non-dominant hand, leading to a reduction of motor asymmetry in older adults. Based on the manual performance in young and older adults, it is suggested that aging reduces manual asymmetry in both force production and manual dexterity due to the reduced performance of the dominant hand.

Self-controlled amount and pacing of practice facilitate learning of a sequential timing task.

Allowing learners to control the number of practice trials has been shown to facilitate motor learning (Lessa & Chiviacowsky, 2015; Post et al., 2011; 2014). However, it is uncertain the extent to which prior findings were influenced by the combined effects of allowing participants to control both the pacing- and amount-of-practice. The present study examined the independent effects of self-controlled amount- and pacing-of-practice on learning a sequential timing task. Participants were assigned to a self-controlled-amount-of-practice (SCA), self-controlled-pacing-of-practice (SCP), yoked-amount-of-practice (YKA), or a yoked-pacing-of-practice (YKP) group. Participants completed acquisition, immediate retention/transfer and delayed retention/transfer. During acquisition, SCA controlled the number of acquisition blocks completed with a fixed inter-trial interval while SCP controlled the inter-trial interval with a fixed number of blocks. Yoked groups were matched to a self-control counterpart so the amount (YKA) and pacing (YKP) were equivalent. Self-control groups demonstrated lower absolute constant error during immediate-retention and lower absolute constant error and variable error during delayed retention (p < .05). For intrinsic motivation, SCA scored significantly higher than SCP for the subscale Interest/Enjoyment (p < .05). Findings indicated that self-control, regardless of type, facilitated motor learning. Further work is needed to continue to examine the relationship between controlling the amount and pacing of practice on skill acquisition.

The effects of a two-step transfer on a visuomotor adaptation task.

The literature has shown robust effects of transfer-of-learning to the contralateral side and more recently transfer-of-learning effects to a new effector type on the ipsilateral side. Few studies have investigated the effects of transfer-of-learning when skills transfer to both a new effector type and the contralateral side (two-step transfer). The purpose of the current study was to investigate the effects of two-step transfer and to examine which aspects of the movement transfer and which aspects do not. Individuals practiced a 30° visual rotation task with either the dominant or non-dominant limb and with either the use of the fingers and wrist or elbow and shoulder. Following practice, participants performed the task with the untrained effector type on the contralateral side. Results showed that initial direction error and trajectory length transferred from the dominant to the non-dominant side and movement time transferred from the elbow and shoulder condition to the wrist and finger conditions irrespective of which limb was used during practice. The results offer a unique perspective on the current theoretical and practical implications for transfer-of-learning and are further discussed in this paper.

The effect of internal, external, and holistic focus of attention on standing long jump performance in novice and skilled karatekas.

An important application for training instructions is found in directing one's attentional focus. This direction can occur in different internal, external, or holistic forms. However, comparison between these three forms of instructions is a relatively recent development rarely reported at different skill levels or various sports including karate. Therefore, the present study attempts to investigate the effects of three forms of instructions on standing long jump performance in skilled and novice karatekas. The participants were 60 skilled and novice karatekas (all females; mean age: 21.32 ± 1.65) who completed 12 standing long jump trials under different focus conditions (3 trials for each condition: internal, external, holistic and control condition) in a counterbalanced order. Our findings suggested significant main effects, indicating that skilled karatekas outperformed the novices. The findings also showed that regardless of skill levels, the participants exhibited similar performance under external and holistic focus conditions while performance in both of these conditions was superior compared to performance under internal focus and control conditions. No difference was observed between the control and internal focus conditions. It seems that skilled and novice karatekas may benefit from holistic and external focus of attention instructions which enhance their motor performance. Thus, it is recommended that coaches should incorporate these two types of attentional focus instructions into their training sessions.

Utilising an internal focus of attention during preparation and an external focus during execution may facilitate motor learning.

Research with athletes and coaches has found that attentional focus strategies are more complex than using an internal or external focus exclusively. Recently Becker et al. [2020, March 1. The effects of attentional focus in the preparation and execution of a standing long jump. Psychological Research, 84(2), 285-291] found that switching attentional focus from internal in movement preparation to external during movement execution provided a benefit over internal focus and control conditions. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of attentional switching on motor skill acquisition. 79 participants were randomly divided into an internal (INT), external (EXT), or switching group (IES). Individuals performed 80 acquisition trials of a golf chipping task with their prescribed attentional focus during preparation and execution. 24-hours later 10-trial retention and transfer tests were performed. The primary analysis revealed significant improvement during acquisition (p < .001) but no significant differences between attentional focus groups during acquisition, retention, or transfer. A secondary analysis was performed with individuals low in attentional focus adherence removed (<60%). Groups significantly improved during acquisition (p < .001). For retention IES significantly outperformed INT (p < .05). These results suggest that the detrimental effects of an internal focus are only found during skill execution and not movement preparation. It is possible for learners to benefit from both an internal and external focus so long as the cues are provided during the correct phase of skill performance.Highlights Attentional focus is much more complex than using either an internal or external focus of attention. This study investigated the effects of switching attention during skill acquisition from an internal to external focus.A preliminary analysis revealed no significant differences between attentional focus groups of internal, external, or switching. One reason for this finding was the poor adherence to the prescribed focus cue.A secondary analysis where low adherence individuals were removed revealed a significant difference between the switching group and the internal focus group during retention.These finding suggest that the detrimental effects associated with an internal focus of attention are exclusive to using the focus during task execution. It is possible that an internal focus can still facilitate learning so long as an external focus is used during movement execution.

Effects of attentional focus and cognitive load on novice dart throwing: Evidence from quiet eye duration and pupillary responses.

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effects of attentional focus and cognitive-load on motor performance, quiet-eye-duration, and pupil dilation. 18 participants completed a dart throwing task under four conditions, internal or external focus with high or low cognitive-load. Cognitive-load was created by a secondary tone detection task. During each trial participants pupil size and eye movements were recorded along with accuracy data of the dart throw. Results revealed that decreased cognitive-load increased accuracy while high load increased pupil size (p's < 0.05). An external focus resulted in the greatest accuracy while an external focus with high cognitive-load resulted in the longest quiet-eye-durations (p's < 0.05). Based on these findings an increase in pupil size is related to greater cognitive-load but doesn't explain the improvement in task performance. Likewise, an external focus of attention improved performance but was not strongly related to quiet-eye-duration. Results are further discussed in the article.

Effects of an external focus of attention and target occlusion on performance in virtual reality.

The use of virtual reality as a training mechanism continues to gain popularity as equipment becomes more readily available. It is important to not only understand the relationship between virtual reality training and motor learning, but to understand the extent to which practice manipulations enhance performance in virtual reality. One common practice manipulation is adopting an external focus of attention, which has been shown to facilitate motor learning in a variety tasks. The purposes of the present study were to investigate the effectiveness of an external focus of attention and the effects of target occlusion times in virtual reality. Fifty-six participants performed a single-leg long jump during baseline, training, and retention and were randomly assigned to either an external or control group. During baseline and retention, all participants performed the task in both a virtual reality (VR) and real world (RW) environments. Training was all done in VR where participants were provided an external focus cue or no cue. Results revealed that individuals jumped significantly further in RW than VR in both baseline and retention (p < .001). During training, the external group jumped significantly further than control (p < .05). These results suggest that the adoption of an external focus improves performance during training. However, we did not see a benefit of an external focus in retention. These findings should be taken into consideration when using virtual reality as a training tool when performance must be transferred to a real world environment.

Effects of Exergaming on Physical and Cognitive Functions in Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Review.

The increase in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) population triggers a deep concern within public health. This alarming trend stresses the need for the development of effective strategies that might aid with this growing population. Exergaming has several advantages as an ASD intervention, such as flexible play, a private space for exercise, and diverse types of physical activity. The study aims to analyze the effectiveness of exergaming interventions on individuals with ASD. The systematic review was conducted in accordance with PRISMA guidelines. Studies which employed exergaming interventions on individuals with ASD were considered for inclusion. Exergaming-related changes in participants' physical and cognitive functions were the main interest of the current review. Ten articles satisfied the predetermined eligibility criteria. Thematic coding categorized the main outcomes into two higher-order themes and five subthemes. The higher-order themes were physical performance and cognitive performance. The emerged subthemes were physical fitness, motor performance, intensity of physical activity, executive function, and self-perception. Following exergame interventions, individuals with ASD indicated significant improvements in physical fitness, executive function, and self-perception. Exergaming also increased participation in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity. In contrast, exergaming indicated small impact on emotional regulation and did not provide adequate opportunities for motor skill development. It is worth noting that only one randomized controlled trial was included in the current review. Future research would require more rigorous study designs to provide reliable evidence on the effectiveness of exergaming interventions for individuals with ASD. Exergaming interventions lead to improved physical and cognitive functions in individuals with ASD. It is suggested that exergaming be used as a feasible supplement to traditional physical activity programs for individuals with ASD.

Self-control over combined video feedback and modeling facilitates motor learning.

Allowing learners to control the video presentation of knowledge of performance (KP) or an expert model during practice has been shown to facilitate motor learning (Aiken, Fairbrother, & Post, 2012; Wulf, Raupach, & Pfeiffer, 2005). Split-screen replay features now allow for the simultaneous presentation of these modes of instructional support. It is uncertain, however, if such a combination incorporated into a self-control protocol would yield similar benefits seen in earlier self-control studies. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to examine the effects of self-controlled split-screen replay on the learning of a golf chip shot. Participants completed 60 practice trials, three administrations of the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory, and a questionnaire on day one. Retention and transfer tests and a final motivation inventory were completed on day two. Results revealed significantly higher form and accuracy scores for the self-control group during transfer. The self-control group also had significantly higher scores on the perceived competence subscale, reported requesting feedback mostly after perceived poor trials, and recalled a greater number of critical task features compared to the yoked group. The findings for the performance measures were consistent with previous self-control research.

Limb Dominance and Its Effects on the Benefits of Intralimb Transfer of Learning: A Visuomotor Aiming Task.

Research has attempted to address what characteristics benefit from transfer of learning; however, it is still unclear which characteristics are effector dependent or independent. Furthermore, it is not clear if intralimb transfer shows, similarly to interlimb transfer, an asymmetry of benefits between the upper limbs. The purpose of the current study is to examine if effector independence effects emerge, as observed in interlimb transfer studies, when transfer to new effector group within the same limb occurs, and whether the pattern of intralimb transfer benefits differ between the limbs. Our results suggest that a visuomotor task transfers within both limbs, even though the transfer benefits within the limbs seem to differ. This was supported by more transfer occurring in the dominant limb than the nondominant limb. Potential control mechanisms used for intralimb transfer are discussed.