Evaluation of health system readiness and coverage of intermittent preventive treatment of malaria in infants (IPTi) in Kambia district to inform national scale-up in Sierra Leone.

BACKGROUND: Intermittent preventive treatment of malaria in infants (IPTi) with sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine (SP) is a proven strategy to protect infants against malaria. Sierra Leone is the first country to implement IPTi nationwide. IPTi implementation was evaluated in Kambia, one of two initial pilot districts, to assess quality and coverage of IPTi services. METHODS: This mixed-methods evaluation had two phases, conducted 3 (phase 1) and 15-17 months (phase 2) after IPTi implementation. Methods included: assessments of 18 health facilities (HF), including register data abstraction (phases 1 and 2); a knowledge, attitudes and practices survey with 20 health workers (HWs) in phase 1; second-generation sequencing of SP resistance markers (pre-IPTi and phase 2); and a cluster-sample household survey among caregivers of children aged 3-15 months (phase 2). IPTi and vaccination coverage from the household survey were calculated from child health cards and maternal recall and weighted for the complex sampling design. Interrupted time series analysis using a Poisson regression model was used to assess changes in malaria cases at HF before and after IPTi implementation. RESULTS: Most HWs (19/20) interviewed had been trained on IPTi; 16/19 reported feeling well prepared to administer it. Nearly all HFs (17/18 in phase 1; 18/18 in phase 2) had SP for IPTi in stock. The proportion of parasite alleles with dhps K540E mutations increased but remained below the 50% WHO-recommended threshold for IPTi (4.1% pre-IPTi [95%CI 2-7%]; 11% post-IPTi [95%CI 8-15%], p < 0.01). From the household survey, 299/459 (67.4%) children ≥ 10 weeks old received the first dose of IPTi (versus 80.4% for second pentavalent vaccine, given simultaneously); 274/444 (62.5%) children ≥ 14 weeks old received the second IPTi dose (versus 65.4% for third pentavalent vaccine); and 83/217 (36.4%) children ≥ 9 months old received the third IPTi dose (versus 52.2% for first measles vaccine dose). HF register data indicated no change in confirmed malaria cases among infants after IPTi implementation. CONCLUSIONS: Kambia district was able to scale up IPTi swiftly and provide necessary health systems support. The gaps between IPTi and childhood vaccine coverage need to be further investigated and addressed to optimize the success of the national IPTi programme.

An innovative quality improvement approach for rapid improvement of infection prevention and control at health facilities in Sierra Leone.

QUALITY CHALLENGE: The Sierra Leone (SL) Ministry of Health and Sanitation's National Infection Prevention and Control Unit (NIPCU) launched National Infection and Prevention Control (IPC) Policy and Guidelines in 2015, but a 2017 assessment found suboptimal compliance with standards on environmental cleanliness (EC), waste disposal (WD) and personal protective equipment (PPE) use. METHODS: ICAP at Columbia University (ICAP), NIPCU and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) designed and implemented a Rapid Improvement Model (RIM) quality improvement (QI) initiative with a compressed timeframe of 6 months to improve EC, WD and PPE at eight purposively selected health facilities (HFs). Targets were collaboratively developed, and a 37-item checklist was designed to monitor performance. HF teams received QI training and weekly coaching and convened monthly to review progress and exchange best practices. At the final learning session, a "harvest package" of the most effective ideas and tools was developed for use at additional HFs. RESULTS: The RIM resulted in marked improvement in WD and EC performance and modest improvement in PPE. Aggregate compliance for the 37 indicators increased from 67 to 96% over the course of 4 months, with all HFs showing improvement. Average PPE compliance improved from 85 to 89%, WD from 63 to 99% and EC from 51 to 99%. LESSONS LEARNED: The RIM QIC approach is feasible and effective in SL's austere health system and led to marked improvement in IPC performance. The best practices are being scaled up and the RIM QIC methodology is being applied to other domains.

Community Health Workers' Experiences in Strengthening the Uptake of Childhood Immunization and Malaria Prevention Services in Urban Sierra Leone.

Introduction: Community health workers (CHWs) play an integral role in Sierra Leone's health systems strengthening efforts. Our goal was to understand CHWs' experiences of providing immunization and malaria prevention services in urban settings and explore opportunities to optimize their contributions to these services. Methods: In 2018, we conducted an exploratory qualitative assessment in the Western Area Urban district, which covers most of the capital city of Freetown. We purposively selected diverse health facilities (i.e., type, ownership, setting) and recruited CHWs through their supervisors. We conducted eight focus group discussions (FGD) with CHWs, which were audio-recorded. The topics explored included participants' background, responsibilities and priorities of urban CHWs, sources of motivation at work, barriers to CHWs' immunization and malaria prevention activities, and strategies used to address these barriers. The local research team transcribed and translated FGDs into English; then we used qualitative content analysis to identify themes. Results: Four themes emerged from the qualitative content analysis: (1) pride, compassion, recognition, and personal benefits are important motivating factors to keep working as CHWs; (2) diverse health responsibilities and competing priorities result in overburdening of CHWs; (3) health system- and community-level barriers negatively affect CHWs' activities and motivation; (4) CHWs use context-specific strategies to address challenges in their work but require further support. Conclusion: Focused support for CHWs is needed to optimize their contributions to immunization and malaria prevention activities. Such interventions should be coupled with systems-level efforts to address the structural barriers that negatively affect CHWs' overall work and motivation, such as the shortage of work supplies and the lack of promised financial support.

Using immunisation caregiver journey interviews to understand and optimise vaccination uptake: lessons from Sierra Leone.

Quantitative and qualitative assessments have revealed diverse factors that influence the uptake of childhood immunisation services and shed light on reasons for vaccination delays and refusals. UNICEF and partner organisations developed the Immunisation Caregiver Journey Framework as a novel way to understand caregiver experiences in accessing and receiving immunisation services for children. This framework aims to help immunisation programmes identify vaccination barriers and opportunities to improve vaccination uptake by enhancing the overall caregiver journey in a systems-focused manner, using human-centred design principles. In this paper, we adapt the framework into a flexible qualitative inquiry approach with theoretical guidance from interpretative phenomenology. We draw from the implementation experiences in Sierra Leone to inform methodological guidance on how to design and implement the Immunisation Caregiver Journey Interviews (ICJI) to understand the lived experiences of caregivers as they navigate immunisation services for their children. Practical guidance is provided on sampling techniques, conducting interviews, data management, data analysis and the use of data to inform programmatic actions. When properly implemented, the ICJI approach generates a rich qualitative understanding of how caregivers navigate household and community dynamics, as well as primary healthcare delivery systems. We argue that understanding and improving the caregiver journey will enhance essential immunisation outcomes, such as the completion of the recommended vaccination schedule, timeliness of vaccination visits and reduction in dropouts between vaccine doses.

Improving inpatient provider-initiated HIV testing and counseling in Sierra Leone.

BACKGROUND/SETTING: Only 47% of HIV-positive Sierra Leoneans knew their status in 2017, making expanded HIV testing a priority. National guidelines endorse provider-initiated HIV testing and counselling (PITC) to increase testing coverage, but PITC is rarely provided in Sierra Leone. In response, a Quality Improvement Collaborative (QIC) was implemented to improve PITC coverage amongst adult inpatients. METHODS: Ten hospitals received the intervention between October 2017 and August 2018; there were no control facilites. Each hospital aimed to improve PITC coverage to ≥ 95% of eligible patients. Staff received training on PITC and QIC methods and a package of PITC best practices and tools. They then worked to identify additional contextually-appropriate interventions, conducted rapid tests of change, and tracked performance using shared indicators and time-series data. Supportive supervision bolstered QI skills, and quarterly meetings enabled diffusion of innovations while spurring friendly competition. RESULTS: Baseline PITC coverage was 4%. The hospital teams tested diverse interventions using QI methods, including staff training; data review meetings; enhanced workflow processes and supervision; and patient education and sensitization activities Nine hospitals reached and sustained the 95% target, and all saw rapid and durable improvement, which was sustained for a median of six months. Of the 5,238 patients tested for HIV, 311 (6%) were found to be HIV-positive and were referred for treatment. HIV rapid test kit stockouts occurred during the project period, limiting PITC services in some cases. CONCLUSIONS: The intervention led to swift and sustained improvement in inpatient PITC coverage and to the diagnosis of hundreds of people living with HIV. Sierra Leone's Ministry of Health and Sanitation plans to take the initiative to national scale, with close attention to the issue of test kit stockouts.

Access, demand, and utilization of childhood immunization services: A cross-sectional household survey in Western Area Urban district, Sierra Leone, 2019.

BACKGROUND: Urban childhood immunization programs face unique challenges in access, utilization, and demand due to frequent population movement between and within localities, sprawling informal settlements, and population heterogeneity. We conducted a cross-sectional household survey in the Western Area Urban district, Sierra Leone, stratified by slums and non-slums as defined by the United Nations Development Program. METHODS: Based on data from child vaccination cards, weighted vaccination coverage was estimated from 450 children aged 12-36 months (household response rate = 83%). Interviews with 444 caregivers identified factors related to accessing routine immunization services. Factors associated with coverage in bivariate analyses were examined in multivariate models using backward stepwise procedure. RESULTS: Coverage was similar in slums and non-slums for 3-doses of diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis-hepatitis B-Haemophilus influenzae type b (pentavalent) vaccine (86%, 92%) and second dose of measles vaccine (33%, 29%). In a multivariate logistic regression model, incomplete pentavalent vaccine coverage was associated with being second or later birth order (adjusted odds ratio (aOR) = 4.5 (95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.4-14.9), a household member not approving of childhood vaccinations (aOR = 7.55, 95% CI = 1.52-37.38), self-reported delay of child receiving recommended vaccinations (aOR = 4.8, 95% CI = 1.0-22.1), and living in a household made of natural or rudimentary materials (aOR = 3.5, 95% CI = 1.2-10.6). Overall, the majority (>70%) of caregivers reported occupation as petty trader and <50% reported receiving vaccination information via preferred communication sources. CONCLUSIONS: Although vaccination coverage in slums was similar to non-slums, study findings support the need for targeted interventions to improve coverage, especially for the second dose of measles vaccine to avoid large scale measles outbreaks. Strategies should focus on educating household members via preferred communication channels regarding the importance of receiving childhood vaccinations on time for all offspring, not just the first born. Vaccination coverage could be further improved by increasing accessibility through innovative strategies such as increasing the number of vaccination days and modifying hours.

Program evaluation of an ORS and zinc scale-up program in 8 Nigerian states.

BACKGROUND: In Nigeria, diarrhea is the second leading killer of children under five. Between 2012-2017, the Clinton Health Access Initiative, Inc. (CHAI) and the Government of Nigeria implemented a comprehensive program in eight states aimed at increasing the percentage of children under five with diarrhea who were treated with zinc and oral rehydration solution (ORS). The program addressed demand, supply, and policy barriers to ORS and zinc uptake through interventions in both public and private sectors. The interventions included: (1) policy revision and partner coordination; (2) market shaping to improve availability of affordable, high-quality ORS and zinc; (3) provider training and mentoring; and (4) caregiver demand generation. METHODS: We conducted cross-sectional household surveys in program states at baseline, midline, and endline and constructed logistic regression models with generalized estimating equations to assess changes in ORS and zinc treatment during the program period. RESULTS: In descriptive analysis, we found 38% (95% CI = 34%-42%) received ORS at baseline and 4% (95% CI = 3%-5%) received both ORS and zinc. At endline, we found 55% (95% CI = 51%-58%) received ORS and 30% (95% CI = 27%-33%) received both ORS and zinc. Adjusting for other covariates, the odds of diarrhea being treated with ORS were 1.88 (95% CI = 1.46, 2.43) times greater at endline. The odds of diarrhea being treated with ORS and zinc combined were 15.14 (95% CI = 9.82, 23.34) times greater at endline. When we include the interaction term to investigate whether the odds ratios between the endline and baseline survey were modified by source of care, we found statistically significant results among diarrhea episodes that sought care in the public and private sector. Among cases that sought care in the public sector, the predictive probability of treatment with ORS increased from 57% (95% CI = 50%-65%) to 83% (95% CI = 79%-87%). Among cases that sought care in the private sector, the predictive probability increased from 41% (95% CI = 34%-48%) to 58% (95% CI = 54%-63%). CONCLUSIONS: Use of ORS and combined ORS and zinc for treatment of diarrhea significantly increased in program states during the program period.