Diabetes compromises tight junction protein claudin 14 in the urinary bladder.

Infections are common in patients with diabetes. Moreover, increasing incidence of antibiotic resistance impedes the complete bacterial clearance and calls for alternative treatment strategies. Along with antibacterial resistance, compromised host conditions create a favorable condition for the disease progression. In particular, cell junction proteins are of major importance as they contribute to a tight cell barrier, protecting against invading pathogens. However, the impact of high glucose on cell junction proteins has received little attention in the urinary bladder but merits closer investigation. Here, we report that during diabetes the expression of cell junction protein, claudin 14 is compromised in the human urine exfoliated cells and in the urinary bladder of type 2 diabetic mouse. Further in vitro analysis confirmed a direct correlation of lower intracellular calcium levels with claudin 14 expression in high glucose-treated human uroepithelial cells. Moreover, external calcium supplementation in high glucose-treated cells significantly affected the cell migration and restored the claudin 14 expression through focal adhesion and ß-1 integrins. Strengthening the epithelial barrier is essential, especially in individuals with diabetes where basal calcium levels could contribute.

Palmdelphin Regulates Nuclear Resilience to Mechanical Stress in the Endothelium.

BACKGROUND: PALMD (palmdelphin) belongs to the family of paralemmin proteins implicated in cytoskeletal regulation. Single nucleotide polymorphisms in the PALMD locus that result in reduced expression are strong risk factors for development of calcific aortic valve stenosis and predict severity of the disease. METHODS: Immunodetection and public database screening showed dominant expression of PALMD in endothelial cells (ECs) in brain and cardiovascular tissues including aortic valves. Mass spectrometry, coimmunoprecipitation, and immunofluorescent staining allowed identification of PALMD partners. The consequence of loss of PALMD expression was assessed in small interferring RNA-treated EC cultures, knockout mice, and human valve samples. RNA sequencing of ECs and transcript arrays on valve samples from an aortic valve study cohort including patients with the single nucleotide polymorphism rs7543130 informed about gene regulatory changes. RESULTS: ECs express the cytosolic PALMD-KKVI splice variant, which associated with RANGAP1 (RAN GTP hydrolyase activating protein 1). RANGAP1 regulates the activity of the GTPase RAN and thereby nucleocytoplasmic shuttling via XPO1 (Exportin1). Reduced PALMD expression resulted in subcellular relocalization of RANGAP1 and XPO1, and nuclear arrest of the XPO1 cargoes p53 and p21. This indicates an important role for PALMD in nucleocytoplasmic transport and consequently in gene regulation because of the effect on localization of transcriptional regulators. Changes in EC responsiveness on loss of PALMD expression included failure to form a perinuclear actin cap when exposed to flow, indicating lack of protection against mechanical stress. Loss of the actin cap correlated with misalignment of the nuclear long axis relative to the cell body, observed in PALMD-deficient ECs, Palmd-/- mouse aorta, and human aortic valve samples derived from patients with calcific aortic valve stenosis. In agreement with these changes in EC behavior, gene ontology analysis showed enrichment of nuclear- and cytoskeleton-related terms in PALMD-silenced ECs. CONCLUSIONS: We identify RANGAP1 as a PALMD partner in ECs. Disrupting the PALMD/RANGAP1 complex alters the subcellular localization of RANGAP1 and XPO1, and leads to nuclear arrest of the XPO1 cargoes p53 and p21, accompanied by gene regulatory changes and loss of actin-dependent nuclear resilience. Combined, these consequences of reduced PALMD expression provide a mechanistic underpinning for PALMD's contribution to calcific aortic valve stenosis pathology.

BAR Domain Proteins Regulate Rho GTPase Signaling.

The Bin-Amphiphysin-Rvs (BAR) domain is a membrane lipid binding domain present in a wide variety of proteins, often proteins with a role in Rho-regulated signaling pathways. BAR domains do not only confer binding to lipid bilayers, they also possess a membrane sculpturing ability and thereby directly control the topology of biomembranes. BAR domain-containing proteins participate in a plethora of physiological processes but the common denominator is their capacity to link membrane dynamics to actin dynamics and thereby integrate processes such as endocytosis, exocytosis, vesicle trafficking, cell morphogenesis and cell migration. The Rho family of small GTPases constitutes an important bridging theme for many BAR domain-containing proteins. This review article will focus predominantly on the role of BAR proteins as regulators or effectors of Rho GTPases and it will only briefly discuss the structural and biophysical function of the BAR domains.

The atypical Rho GTPase RhoD is a regulator of actin cytoskeleton dynamics and directed cell migration.

RhoD belongs to the Rho GTPases, a protein family responsible for the regulation and organization of the actin cytoskeleton, and, consequently, many cellular processes like cell migration, cell division and vesicle trafficking. Here, we demonstrate that the actin cytoskeleton is dynamically regulated by increased or decreased protein levels of RhoD. Ectopic expression of RhoD has previously been shown to give an intertwined weave of actin filaments. We show that this RhoD-dependent effect is detected in several cell types and results in a less dynamic actin filament system. In contrast, RhoD depletion leads to increased actin filament-containing structures, such as cortical actin, stress fibers and edge ruffles. Moreover, vital cellular functions such as cell migration and proliferation are defective when RhoD is silenced. Taken together, we present data suggesting that RhoD is an important component in the control of actin dynamics and directed cell migration.

Activated Rho GTPases in Cancer-The Beginning of a New Paradigm.

Involvement of Rho GTPases in cancer has been a matter of debate since the identification of the first members of this branch of the Ras superfamily of small GTPases. The Rho GTPases were ascribed important roles in the cell, although these were restricted to regulation of cytoskeletal dynamics, cell morphogenesis, and cell locomotion, with initially no clear indications of direct involvement in cancer progression. This paradigm has been challenged by numerous observations that Rho-regulated pathways are often dysregulated in cancers. More recently, identification of point mutants in the Rho GTPases Rac1, RhoA, and Cdc42 in human tumors has finally given rise to a new paradigm, and we can now state with confidence that Rho GTPases serve as oncogenes in several human cancers. This article provides an exposé of current knowledge of the roles of activated Rho GTPases in cancers.

Deciphering the Molecular and Functional Basis of RHOGAP Family Proteins: A SYSTEMATIC APPROACH TOWARD SELECTIVE INACTIVATION OF RHO FAMILY PROTEINS.

RHO GTPase-activating proteins (RHOGAPs) are one of the major classes of regulators of the RHO-related protein family that are crucial in many cellular processes, motility, contractility, growth, differentiation, and development. Using database searches, we extracted 66 distinct human RHOGAPs, from which 57 have a common catalytic domain capable of terminating RHO protein signaling by stimulating the slow intrinsic GTP hydrolysis (GTPase) reaction. The specificity of the majority of the members of RHOGAP family is largely uncharacterized. Here, we comprehensively investigated the sequence-structure-function relationship between RHOGAPs and RHO proteins by combining our in vitro data with in silico data. The activity of 14 representatives of the RHOGAP family toward 12 RHO family proteins was determined in real time. We identified and structurally verified hot spots in the interface between RHOGAPs and RHO proteins as critical determinants for binding and catalysis. We have found that the RHOGAP domain itself is nonselective and in some cases rather inefficient under cell-free conditions. Thus, we propose that other domains of RHOGAPs confer substrate specificity and fine-tune their catalytic efficiency in cells.

Oncogenes induce a vimentin filament collapse mediated by HDAC6 that is linked to cell stiffness.

Oncogenes deregulate fundamental cellular functions, which can lead to development of tumors, tumor-cell invasion, and metastasis. As the mechanical properties of cells govern cell motility, we hypothesized that oncogenes promote cell invasion by inducing cytoskeletal changes that increase cellular stiffness. We show that the oncogenes simian virus 40 large T antigen, c-Myc, and cyclin E induce spatial reorganization of the vimentin intermediate filament network in cells. At the cellular level, this reorganization manifests as increased width of vimentin fibers and the collapse of the vimentin network. At nanoscale resolution, the organization of vimentin fibers in these oncogene-expressing cells was more entangled, with increased width of the fibers compared with control cells. Expression of these oncogenes also resulted in up-regulation of the tubulin deacetylase histone deacetylase 6 (HDAC6) and altered spatial distribution of acetylated microtubules. This oncogene expression also induced increases in cellular stiffness and promoted the invasive capacity of the cells. Importantly, HDAC6 was required and sufficient for the structural collapse of the vimentin filament network, and was required for increased cellular stiffness of the oncogene-expressing cells. Taken together, these data are consistent with the possibility that oncogenes can induce cellular stiffness via an HDAC6-induced reorganization of the vimentin intermediate filament network.

RhoD is a Golgi component with a role in anterograde protein transport from the ER to the plasma membrane.

RhoD is a member of the Rho GTPase family and it coordinates actin dynamics and membrane trafficking. Activation of RhoD results in formation of filopodia, dissolution of stress fibers, and the subsequent formation of short actin bundles. In addition, RhoD localizes to early endosomes and recycling endosomes, and has a regulatory role in endosome trafficking. In this study, we report on a function of RhoD in the regulation of Golgi homeostasis. We show that manipulation of protein and activation levels of RhoD, as well as of its binding partner WHAMM, result in derailed localization of Golgi stacks. Moreover, vesicle trafficking from the endoplasmic reticulum to the plasma membrane via the Golgi apparatus measured by the VSV-G protein is severely hampered by manipulation of RhoD or WHAMM. In summary, our studies demonstrate a novel role for this member of the Rho GTPases in the regulation of Golgi function.

RhoD binds the Rab5 effector Rabankyrin-5 and has a role in trafficking of the platelet-derived growth factor receptor.

RhoD is a member of the classical Rho GTPases and it has essential roles in the regulation of actin dynamics. RhoD localizes to early endosomes and recycling endosomes, which indicates its important role in the regulation of endosome trafficking. Here, we show that RhoD binds to the Rab5 effector Rabankyrin-5, and RhoD and Rabankyrin-5 colocalize to Rab5-positive endosomes, which suggests a role for Rabankyrin-5 in the coordination of RhoD and Rab5 in endosomal trafficking. Interestingly, depletion of RhoD using siRNA techniques interfered with the internalization of the PDGFß receptor and the subsequent activation of the downstream signaling cascades. Our data suggest that RhoD and Rabankyrin-5 have important roles in coordinating RhoD and Rab activities during internalization and trafficking of activated tyrosine kinase receptors.

Atypical Rho GTPases RhoD and Rif integrate cytoskeletal dynamics and membrane trafficking.

The Rho GTPases are essential regulators of basic cellular processes, including cell migration, cell contraction and cell division. Most studies still involve just the three canonical members, RhoA, Rac1 and Cdc42, although the Rho GTPases comprise at least 20 members. The aim of this review is to highlight some of the recent advances in our knowledge regarding the less-studied Rho members, with the focus on RhoD and Rif. The phenotypic alterations to cell behaviour that are triggered by RhoD and Rif suggest that they have unique impacts on cytoskeletal dynamics that distinguish them from the well-studied members of the Rho GTPases. In addition, RhoD has a role in the regulation of intracellular transport of vesicles. Taken together, the available data indicate that RhoD and Rif have functions as master regulators in the integration of cytoskeletal reorganisation and membrane trafficking.

Miro GTPases at the Crossroads of Cytoskeletal Dynamics and Mitochondrial Trafficking.

Miro GTPases are key components in the machinery responsible for transporting mitochondria and peroxisomes along microtubules, and also play important roles in regulating calcium homeostasis and organizing contact sites between mitochondria and the endoplasmic reticulum. Moreover, Miro GTPases have been shown to interact with proteins that actively regulate cytoskeletal organization and dynamics, suggesting that these GTPases participate in organizing cytoskeletal functions and organelle transport. Derailed mitochondrial transport is associated with neuropathological conditions such as Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases. This review explores our recent understanding of the diverse roles of Miro GTPases under cytoskeletal control, both under normal conditions and during the course of human diseases such as neuropathological disorders.

Interaction of RhoD and ZIP kinase modulates actin filament assembly and focal adhesion dynamics.

RhoD is a member of the classical Rho GTPases and it has an essential role in the regulation of actin dynamics. Furthermore, RhoD also localizes to early endosomes and recycling endosomes, indicating additional roles in the regulation of endosome trafficking. A yeast two-hybrid screen identified Zipper-Interacting Protein Kinase (ZIPK) as a RhoD target. We found that RhoD interacts with ZIP kinase in a GTP dependent manner and modulates actin and focal adhesion reorganization. Interestingly, while ectopic expression of ZIPK in fibroblasts induces actin reorganization and actomyosin contraction seen as stress fiber bundling and membrane blebbing, the concomitant expression of active RhoD suppressed this phenotype. Previously, RhoD has been associated with focal adhesion regulation, and in line with this notion, we observed that ZIPK resulted in reorganization of focal adhesion and increased adhesion size. Importantly, the RhoD activity suppressed ZIPK-dependent effects on FAK activity, indicating a functional interplay between RhoD and FAK in the focal adhesion dynamics.

SH3-mediated targeting of Wrch1/RhoU by multiple adaptor proteins.

Wrch1/RhoU is an atypical member of the Rho family. A major structural difference is the extended N-terminus of Wrch1 (nWrch1) containing three putative SH3 domain-binding motifs whose specificities are unknown. To define the impact of this extended region on coupling Wrch1 to cellular signaling, we analyzed in this study nWrch1 interaction with Src homology 3 (SH3) domains of different adaptor proteins. Using sedimentation and isothermal titration calorimetric (ITC) measurements, we identified isolated SH3 domains of growth factor receptor-bound protein 2 (Grb2), noncatalytic region of tyrosine kinase adaptor protein 1 (Nck1), c-Src, chicken tumor virus no. 10 (CT 10) regulator kinase 1 (Crk1), and p120 as low-affinity Wrch1-binding partners. Interestingly, under cell-based conditions, nWrch1 bound tightly to endogenous Grb2 and Nck, but not to Crk, c-Src, or p120. Consistent with this, a very tight nWrch1 interaction with full-length Grb2 and Nck1 was confirmed in vitro by ITC measurements indicating that high avidity of the adaptor proteins can compensate for the low affinity of their SH3 domains. Peptide analysis revealed that the central PxxP motif of nWrch1, which employs a minimal consensus sequence of eight amino acids with an essential arginine next to the PxxP motif, is responsible for these interactions. Thus, novel functional insights from this study suggest that multiple upstream signals may converge on Wrch1 directly through its SH3 domain-binding properties.

Spatial organization of proteins in metastasizing cells.

The ability of tumor cells to invade into the surrounding tissue is linked to defective adhesive and mechanical properties of the cells, which are regulated by cell surface adhesions and the intracellular filamentous cytoskeleton, respectively. With the aim to further reveal the underlying mechanisms and provide new strategies for early cancer diagnostics, we have used ultrahigh resolution stimulated emission depletion (STED) microscopy as a means to identify metastasizing cells, based on their subcellular protein distribution patterns reflecting their specific adhesive and mechanical properties. We have compared the spatial distribution of cell-matrix adhesion sites and the vimentin filamentous systems in a matched pair of primary, normal, and metastatic human fibroblast cells. We found that the metastatic cells showed significantly increased densities and more homogenous distributions of nanoscale adhesion-related particles. Moreover, they showed an increase in the number but reduced sizes of the areas of cell-matrix adhesion complexes. The organization of the vimentin intermediate filaments was also found to be significantly different in the metastasizing cells, showing an increased entanglement and loss of directionality. Image analysis procedures were established, allowing an objective detection and characterization of these features and distinction of metastatic cells from their normal counterparts. In conclusion, our results suggest that STED microscopy provides a novel tool to identify metastasizing cells from a very sparse number of cells, based on the altered spatial distribution of the cell-matrix adhesions and intermediate filaments.

Rho GTPases link cellular contractile force to the density and distribution of nanoscale adhesions.

The ability of cells to adhere and to exert contractile forces governs their capacity to move within an organism. The cytoskeletal regulators of the Rho GTPase proteins are involved in control of the contractile forces of cells. To elucidate the basis of cell migration, we analyzed contractile forces and nanoscale adhesion-related particles in single cells expressing constitutively active variants of Rho GTPases by using traction-force microscopy and ultra-high-resolution stimulated emission depletion microscopy, respectively. RhoAV14 induced large increases in the contractile forces of single cells, with Rac1L61 and RhoDV26 having more moderate effects. The RhoAV14- and RhoDV26-induced forces showed similar spatial distributions and were accompanied by reduced or unaltered cell spreading. In contrast, the Rac1L61-induced force had different, scattered, force distributions that were linked to increased cell spreading. All three of these Rho GTPase activities caused a loss of thick stress fibers and focal adhesions and a more homogenous distribution of nanoscale adhesion-related particles over the ventral surface of the cells. Interestingly, only RhoAV14 increased the density of these particles. Our data suggest a Rac1-specific mode for cells to generate contractile forces. Importantly, increased density and a more homogenous distribution of these small adhesion-related particles promote cellular contractile forces.

12/15-lipoxygenase-derived lipid peroxides control receptor tyrosine kinase signaling through oxidation of protein tyrosine phosphatases.

Protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) are regulated through reversible oxidation of the active-site cysteine. Previous studies have implied soluble reactive oxygen species (ROS), like H(2)O(2), as the mediators of PTP oxidation. The potential role(s) of peroxidized lipids in PTP oxidation have not been described. This study demonstrates that increases in cellular lipid peroxides, induced by disruption of glutathione peroxidase 4, induce cellular PTP oxidation and reduce the activity of PDGF receptor targeting PTPs. These effects were accompanied by site-selective increased PDGF beta-receptor phosphorylation, sensitive to 12/15-lipoxygenase (12/15-LOX) inhibitors, and increased PDGF-induced cytoskeletal rearrangements. Importantly, the 12/15-LOX-derived 15-OOH-eicosatetraenoic acid lipid peroxide was much more effective than H(2)O(2) in induction of in vitro PTP oxidation. Our study thus establishes that lipid peroxides are previously unrecognized inducers of oxidation of PTPs. This identifies a pathway for control of receptor tyrosine kinase signaling, which might also be involved in the etiology of diseases associated with increased lipid peroxidation.

MTSS1 is downregulated in nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) which disrupts adherens junctions leading to enhanced cell migration and invasion.

Loss of cell-cell adhesions is the indispensable first step for cancer cells to depart from the primary tumor mass to metastasize. Metastasis suppressor 1 (MTSS1) is frequently lost in metastatic tissues, correlating to advanced tumor stages and poor prognosis across a variety of cancers. Here we explore the anti-metastatic mechanisms of MTSS1, which have not been well understood. We found that MTSS1 is downregulated in NPC tissues. Lower levels of MTSS1 expression correlate to worse prognosis. We show that MTSS1 suppresses NPC cell migration and invasion in vitro through cytoskeletal remodeling at cell-cell borders and assembly of E-cadherin/ß-catenin/F-actin in adherens junctions. The I-BAR domain of MTSS1 was both necessary and sufficient to restore this formation of E-cadherin/ß-catenin/F-actin-mediated cell adherens junctions.

The Role of Fast-Cycling Atypical RHO GTPases in Cancer.

The RHO GTPases comprise a subfamily within the RAS superfamily of small GTP-hydrolyzing enzymes and have primarily been ascribed roles in regulation of cytoskeletal dynamics in eukaryotic cells. An oncogenic role for the RHO GTPases has been disregarded, as no activating point mutations were found for genes encoding RHO GTPases. Instead, dysregulated expression of RHO GTPases and their regulators have been identified in cancer, often in the context of increased tumor cell migration and invasion. In the new landscape of cancer genomics, activating point mutations in members of the RHO GTPases have been identified, in particular in RAC1, RHOA, and CDC42, which has suggested that RHO GTPases can indeed serve as oncogenes in certain cancer types. This review describes the current knowledge of these cancer-associated mutant RHO GTPases, with a focus on how their altered kinetics can contribute to cancer progression.

Altered cytoskeletal status in the transition from proneural to mesenchymal glioblastoma subtypes.

Glioblastoma is a highly aggressive brain tumor with poor patient prognosis. Treatment outcomes remain limited, partly due to intratumoral heterogeneity and the invasive nature of the tumors. Glioblastoma cells invade and spread into the surrounding brain tissue, and even between hemispheres, thus hampering complete surgical resection. This invasive motility can arise through altered properties of the cytoskeleton. We hypothesize that cytoskeletal organization and dynamics can provide important clues to the different malignant states of glioblastoma. In this study, we investigated cytoskeletal organization in glioblastoma cells with different subtype expression profiles, and cytoskeletal dynamics upon subtype transitions. Analysis of the morphological, migratory, and invasive properties of glioblastoma cells identified cytoskeletal components as phenotypic markers that can serve as diagnostic or prognostic tools. We also show that the cytoskeletal function and malignant properties of glioblastoma cells shift during subtype transitions induced by altered expression of the neurodevelopmental transcription factor SOX2. The potential of SOX2 re-expression to reverse the mesenchymal subtype into a more proneural subtype might open up strategies for novel glioblastoma treatments.

Diabetes downregulates the antimicrobial peptide psoriasin and increases E. coli burden in the urinary bladder.

Diabetes is known to increase susceptibility to infections, partly due to impaired granulocyte function and changes in the innate immunity. Here, we investigate the effect of diabetes, and high glucose on the expression of the antimicrobial peptide, psoriasin and the putative consequences for E. coli urinary tract infection. Blood, urine, and urine exfoliated cells from patients are studied. The influence of glucose and insulin is examined during hyperglycemic clamps in individuals with prediabetes and in euglycemic hyperinsulinemic clamped patients with type 1 diabetes. Important findings are confirmed in vivo in type 2 diabetic mice and verified in human uroepithelial cell lines. High glucose concentrations induce lower psoriasin levels and impair epithelial barrier function together with altering cell membrane proteins and cytoskeletal elements, resulting in increasing bacterial burden. Estradiol treatment restores the cellular function with increasing psoriasin and bacterial killing in uroepithelial cells, confirming its importance during urinary tract infection in hyperglycemia. In conclusion, our findings present the effects and underlying mechanisms of high glucose compromising innate immunity.