The technology of high-power ultrasound and its effect on the color and aroma of rosé wines.

BACKGROUND: The application of high-power ultrasound (US) has been studied extensively to obtain value-added red wines using short maceration times. It is a technique of wide interest for the extraction of aromatic compounds and compounds responsible for color, so it could also be an important tool to use in the elaboration process of rosé wines. Thus, this study focused on the effect of the application of US on the phenolic, aromatic, and sensorial profile of rosé wines. For this, three different types of rosé wine were produced: a control with direct pressing after crushing, another wine obtained from a 4 h macerated must, and a wine whose crushed and destemmed grape was sonicated and subsequently pressed. RESULTS: The results showed a higher color intensity and a higher total polyphenol and anthocyanin content in the wine obtained from sonicated grape compared to both control wine and that obtained from grape macerated for 4 h. Ultrasound treatment enhanced the extraction of varietal volatile compounds in must, especially the free faction of terpenes and norisoprenoids. It also gave rise to wines with a higher concentration of C6 alcohols and other compounds such as guaiacol and 4-vinylguaiacol, but led to fewer fatty acids, especially C6, C4 and C8 acids. Sensorially these wines showed intense aromas of red fruits and flowers, while no defects in aroma or astringency were found. CONCLUSIONS: The color and sensory profile of the resulting wines indicate that the US may be an interesting tool for obtaining quality rosé wines, replacing the maceration stage and reducing potential oxidation problems. © 2023 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Power ultrasound treatment of Viognier grapes as a tool to increase the aromatic potential of wines.

BACKGROUND: High-power ultrasound is a novel and non-thermal technique normally used in red vinification to increase the extraction of phenolic compounds. However, few studies have been carried out on its effect on the extraction of aroma compounds and their precursors in white grapes. This study evaluates the effect of high-power ultrasound at winery scale in the maceration of Viognier grapes on the content of varietal volatile compounds (free and glycosidically bound) in musts and wines, in comparison with wines from direct pressing and from short skin maceration. RESULTS: The pre-fermentative ultrasound treatment of the grapes produced an increase in most of the varietal compounds of musts and wines, both in the free fraction and in the bound one, especially in the C6 alcohols, terpenes and norisoprenoids, some of them of sensory relevance, while the effect on esters and lactones was less evident. Ultrasound maceration allowed us to obtain wines of higher aromatic intensity, with a more pronounced varietal character. CONCLUSION: The pre-fermentative ultrasound treatment of Viognier grapes increases the aromatic potential of the wines, as it favors the extraction of free and bound varietal volatile compounds. In addition, it allows the maceration time of the grapes to be reduced compared to conventional pre-fermentation techniques, thus avoiding oxidative processes that could negatively affect the aroma of the wines. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Effect of Sonication Treatment and Maceration Time in the Extraction of Polysaccharide Compounds during Red Wine Vinification.

The application of high-power ultrasounds (US) at 28 kHz to the crushed grapes and the use of different pomace contact times caused changes in the content and composition of monosaccharides and polysaccharides in the musts and wines. These differences were maintained from the moment of pressing (end of maceration) until the end of the alcoholic fermentation. The US increased the content of monosaccharides and polysaccharides in the musts by facilitating their extraction from the solid parts during maceration. The application of medium maceration time (3 days) to sonicated grapes led to an extraction of polysaccharides rich in arabinose and galactose, rhamnogalacturonan type II (RG-II) and mannoproteins (MP), similar to that observed in the control wines made with an extended maceration of 7 days (968.21 vs. 1029.45; 895.04 vs. 1700.50; 356.81 vs. 343.95, respectively). This fact was attributed to a higher extraction in the must during the sonication process and to an important release of pectic polysaccharides during the pressing of the sonicated pomace, which is reported here for the first time. Therefore, the US technology could be useful for increasing the polysaccharide content in the wines or for reducing the maceration time needed to achieve certain levels of wine polysaccharides.

Effect of Power Ultrasound Treatment on Free and Glycosidically-Bound Volatile Compounds and the Sensorial Profile of Red Wines.

This study presents the effect of the application of high-power ultrasound to crushed grapes, at a winery-scale, on the content of varietal volatile compounds (free and glycosidically-bound) in musts and on the overall aroma of wines. Two different frequencies (20 kHz and 28 kHz) were tested and the combination of grape sonication and different maceration times on wine aroma was also evaluated. The volatile compounds were isolated by solid phase extraction and analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, carrying out a sensory evaluation of wines by quantitative descriptive analysis. Sonication produced an increase in the concentration of free varietal compounds such as C6 alcohols, terpenes and norisoprenoids in musts and also in wines made by 48 h of skin maceration, being less efficient in the extraction of the bound fraction. Fermentation compounds were also positively affected by ultrasound treatment, although this effect was variable depending on the frequency used, the maceration time and the type of compound. All the wines made from sonicated grapes had better scores in the evaluated olfactory attributes with respect to the control wines. Our results indicate that sonication could produce an increase in the content of some volatile compounds of sensory relevance, obtaining wines with an aroma quality similar or higher than those elaborated with longer maceration times.

Effect of the Use of Purified Grape Pomace as a Fining Agent on the Volatile Composition of Monastrell Wines.

(1) Background: The lack of viable alternatives for the industrial exploitation of grape pomace is one of the reasons why it is considered a serious environmental pollutant. However, as a byproduct, it could be used as a fining agent, since previous studies have shown that it is able to eliminate undesirable substances in wine. However, the little information available does not describe its effect on wine aroma. (2) Methods: Purified grape pomace extracts were used for fining a red wine and their effect on the volatile compounds of the wine was assessed, comparing the results with those obtained with different commercial fining agents. (3) Results: The results showed how purified grape pomace decreased the total volatile content of a wine to a similar extent as other fining products, such as yeast extracts or gelatin. Among the different families of volatile compounds analyzed, only total esters and terpenes differed from the levels recorded for a control wine, being slightly lower. No statistical differences were found for the rest of the volatile compounds (alcohols, carbonyl, lactones, and acids) compared with the levels measured in control wine. (4) Conclusions: The results suggest that purified grape pomace could be used as a non-allergenic wine fining agent.

Technological Implications of Modifying the Extent of Cell Wall-Proanthocyanidin Interactions Using Enzymes.

The transference and reactivity of proanthocyanidins is an important issue that affects the technological processing of some fruits, such as grapes and apples. These processes are affected by proanthocyanidins bound to cell wall polysaccharides, which are present in high concentrations during the processing of the fruits. Therefore, the effective extraction of proanthocyanidins from fruits to their juices or derived products will depend on the ability to manage these associations, and, in this respect, enzymes that degrade these polysaccharides could play an important role. The main objective of this work was to test the role of pure hydrolytic enzymes (polygalacturonase and cellulose) and a commercial enzyme containing these two activities on the extent of proanthocyanidin-cell wall interactions. The results showed that the modification promoted by enzymes reduced the amount of proanthocyanidins adsorbed to cell walls since they contributed to the degradation and release of the cell wall polysaccharides, which diffused into the model solution. Some of these released polysaccharides also presented some reactivity towards the proanthocyanidins present in a model solution.

Nutritional composition and antioxidant capacity in edible flowers: characterisation of phenolic compounds by HPLC-DAD-ESI/MSn.

Edible flowers are commonly used in human nutrition and their consumption has increased in recent years. The aim of this study was to ascertain the nutritional composition and the content and profile of phenolic compounds of three edible flowers, monks cress (Tropaeolum majus), marigold (Tagetes erecta) and paracress (Spilanthes oleracea), and to determine the relationship between the presence of phenolic compounds and the antioxidant capacity. Proximate composition, total dietary fibre (TDF) and minerals were analysed according to official methods: total phenolic compounds (TPC) were determined with Folin-Ciocalteu's reagent, whereas antioxidant capacity was evaluated using Trolox Equivalent Antioxidant Capacity (TEAC) and Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity (ORAC) assays. In addition, phenolic compounds were characterised by HPLC-DAD-MSn. In relation to the nutritional value, the edible flowers had a composition similar to that of other plant foods, with a high water and TDF content, low protein content and very low proportion of total fat-showing significant differences among samples. The levels of TPC compounds and the antioxidant capacity were significantly higher in T. erecta, followed by S. oleracea and T. majus. Thirty-nine different phenolic compounds were tentatively identified, with flavonols being the major compounds detected in all samples, followed by anthocyanins and hydroxycynnamic acid derivatives. In T. erecta small proportions of gallotannin and ellagic acid were also identified.

Untargeted Metabolomics Analysis Based on LC-QTOF-MS to Investigate the Phenolic Composition of Red and White Wines Elaborated from Sonicated Grapes.

Ultrasounds are considered an emerging technology in the wine industry. Concretely, in 2019, the International Organization of Vine and Wine (OIV) officially approved their use for the treatment of crushed grapes to increase the level of phenolic compound extraction. The main objective of this study was to validate an untargeted metabolomics approach as an analytical tool for identifying novel markers associated with sonication. To do so, the influence of a sonication treatment on the metabolic profile was studied in four typically commercial varietal wines, i.e., two red wines from 'Syrah' and 'Cabernet Sauvignon' grapes and two white wines from 'Macabeo' and 'Airén' grapes. A robust classification and prediction model was created employing supervised techniques such as partial least-squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA). The findings indicated that the grapes subjected to high-power ultrasound conditions experienced cell wall disruption due to the cavitation phenomenon, resulting in significant changes in various phenolic compounds (including hydroxycinnamic acids and flavonoids) present in these wines compared to wines from non-sonicated grapes. Additionally, new metabolites were tentatively identified through untargeted metabolomics techniques. This study represents the successful application of the untargeted metabolomics approach employing a UHPLC-QTOF system to discern how grape sonication affects bioactive secondary metabolites in wines.

The Generation of Suspended Cell Wall Material May Limit the Effect of Ultrasound Technology in Some Varietal Wines.

The disruptive effect exerted by high-power ultrasound on grape cell walls enhances phenolic extraction, improving chromatic characteristics during red wine maceration. However, short maceration times may, sometimes, hinder this enhancement, and this effect could be attributed to the suspended cell wall material formation facilitated by sonication. This suspended material, having a strong affinity for phenolic compounds, can lead to their precipitation and elimination during subsequent vinification stages and, consequently, a significant portion of extracted phenolic compounds may not contribute to the final phenolic composition of the wine, impacting its chromatic features. To demonstrate this effect, sonicated grapes of two different varieties were vinified with No modified process that eliminated part of this suspended material. Results confirm our hypothesis; that is, the lack of positive outcomes in some cases is due to phenolic compound adsorption on suspended material.

Effect of Pre-fermentative Treatments on Polysaccharide Composition of White and Rosé Musts and Wines.

This paper studied the effect of conventional pre-fermentative techniques (direct pressing "CP" and cold maceration "CM") and an innovate technique (high power ultrasounds "S"), applied to Viogner and Monastrell grapes on the polysaccharide content of the musts, white and rosé wines, and after six months of bottle aging. The results showed that the longer pre-fermentation maceration time applied with the CM technique compared to the short ultrasonic maceration was key in the extraction of polysaccharides from the grape to the must. CP treatment produced wines with the lowest content of total soluble polysaccharide families since it was the least intense pretreatment for the disruption of the grape berry cell wall polysaccharides. Ultrasonic pretreatment could be used as a new tool to increase the solubilization of polysaccharides in wines, positively affecting the wine colloidal properties. During bottle aging, there wasn't a clear effect of pretreatments on the evolution of polysaccharides.

The composition and structure of plant fibers affect their fining performance in wines.

In recent years, the wine industry has shifted towards plant-based fining agents for food safety reasons and consumer preferences. This study analysed the interaction of five plant fibers with red wine phenolic compounds to determinate their performance as fining agents. Chemical composition, polysaccharide profile, and physical properties were examined. Pea, cellulose, and Sauvignon Blanc pomace fibers effectively reduced tannin content while minimally affecting the concentration of anthocyanins, flavonols and wine color. Contrary to previous beliefs, the presence of pectins in fibers didn't play a crucial role in phenolic compound interaction since cellulose-rich fibers with low pectin concentration also bound tannins effectively, especially those with small particle size and high contact surface. Pea fiber, rich in cellulose and pectins, showed remarkable tannin retention while minimally affecting wine color. This research highlights the potential of plant fibers as effective fining agents in wine production and how their composition affects their performance.

Protein extracts from amaranth and quinoa as novel fining agents for red wines.

Due to allergenic concerns, only pea, potato, and wheat proteins have been approved as alternatives for replacing animal-based fining agents in wines. In pursuit of other substitutes, this work aimed to determine the fining ability of amaranth (Amaranthus caudatus L.) proteins (AP) in red wine, compared to quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) (QP) and a commercial pea protein. Phenolic and volatile composition, as well as color characteristics, were analyzed. AP was as effective as QP at decreasing condensed tannins, with AP at 50 g/hL being the most effective treatment (25.6% reduction). QP and AP produced a minor or no statistical change in the total anthocyanins and wine color intensity. They reduced the total ester concentration, but the total alcohols remained unchanged. The outcomes of AP and QP were similar, and sometimes better than the pea proteins, thus suggesting that they could be promising options for the development of novel fining agents.

High-Power Ultrasound in Enology: Is the Outcome of This Technique Dependent on Grape Variety?

The disruptive effect exerted by high-power ultrasound (US) on grape cell walls is established as the reason behind the chromatic, aromatic and mouthfeel improvement that this treatment causes in red wines. Given the biochemical differences that exist between the cell walls of different grape varieties, this paper investigates whether the effect of the application of US in a winery may vary according to the grape variety treated. Wines were elaborated with Monastrell, Syrah and Cabernet Sauvignon grapes, applying a sonication treatment to the crushed grapes using industrial-scale equipment. The results showed a clear varietal effect. The wines made with sonicated Syrah and Cabernet Sauvignon grapes showed an important increase in the values of color intensity and concentration of phenolic compounds, and these increases were higher than those observed when sonication was applied to Monastrell crushed grapes, whereas Monastrell wines presented the highest concentration in different families of polysaccharides. These findings correlate with the differences in the composition and structure of their cell walls since those of Monastrell grapes presented biochemical characteristics associated with a greater rigidity and firmness of the structures.

Revisiting the use of pectinases in enology: A role beyond facilitating phenolic grape extraction.

With the objective of improving both the extraction of phenolic compounds from grapes and their maintenance in the final wine, we compared the effect of favoring phenolic extraction with a pectolytic-based maceration enzyme with that of favoring both phenolic extraction and the partial elimination of the suspended material using a pectolytic-based clarification enzyme. The phenolic composition of the final wines and those adsorbed to the precipitated lees were analyzed. Both enzymes increased wine color intensity and phenolic content, but the best results were observed when the clarification enzyme was used. This enzyme generated the largest losses of phenolics bound to precipitated lees. However, this resulted in a positive effect, the precipitation of lees rich in phenolic compounds probably created a pronounced gradient of phenolic compounds from grapes to must/wine and better chromatic characteristics in the final wine, compared with the wine made using a traditional maceration enzyme.

Grape Pulp Fiber as Possible Fining Agents for Red Wine.

One of the biggest problems with the use of traditional fining agents is that some of them present allergenic characteristics or are not suitable for vegan consumers due to their animal origin. An alternative to these traditional proteinaceous agents could be cell walls from grape pulp. This material could be used to modify the final phenolic concentration of a wine due to its affinity for phenolic compounds. In this study, the ability of freeze-dried grape pulp fiber, rich in pulp cell walls, to act as a fining agent was analyzed in wines from three different varieties: Cabernet Sauvignon, Syrah, and Monastrell. After the use of this material, the wine chromatic characteristics and total tannin concentration were analyzed by spectrophotometric and chromatographic techniques. In addition, the wines were contaminated with ochratoxin A and histamine to check whether this material could also be a tool for removing these wine contaminants. The pulp fiber presented a high capacity to retain phenolic compounds, especially tannins; however, there were differences depending on the studied wine. The largest reduction in tannin concentration after fining was observed when this material was used in Cabernet Sauvignon wines (23%), whereas for Monastrell wines the reduction was lower (18.3%) and even lower for Syrah wines (14.3%). This fining agent also reduced the anthocyanin concentration of the three red wines, although to a lesser extent than the reduction observed for tannins. A really interesting result was that the addition of this fining agent reduced the concentration of ochratoxin A by 50% in all the studied wines.

The Application of Ultrasound and Enzymes Could Be Promising Tools for Recovering Polyphenols during the Aging on Lees Process in Red Winemaking.

The final concentration of phenolic compounds in wines is usually lower than what might be expected, given their concentration in grapes. This is in part due to the interactions between cell walls from grapes and yeast with phenolics during red winemaking. Most of these aggregates are insoluble and end up precipitating, forming part of the lees. The objective of this study is to determine the capacity of ultrasounds and/or enzymes treatments (ß-glucanase and a pectolytic enzyme) to release the anthocyanins and tannins adsorbed in the lees. The ultrasound (US) applied for 120 min slightly favored the extraction of anthocyanins and doubled tannin extraction. Shorter sonication times did not show any positive effect. The combination of ß-glucanase and pectolytic enzyme was always more effective in the liberation of anthocyanins (both no-acylated and acylated anthocyanins) and tannins than the enzymes acting separately. The combination of US (120 min), ß-glucanase and pectolytic enzyme showed an additive effect, increasing the extraction of phenolic compounds with respect to the individual treatments and also releasing a large quantity of low molecular weight polysaccharides, compounds of enological importance. These results of this study could be of enological interest, facilitating and accelerating the aging on lees process, through the liberation of polysaccharides and the recovery of the phenolic compounds lost during vinification.

Ultrasound treatment of crushed grapes: Effect on the must and red wine polysaccharide composition.

This paper studied the effect on the molecular weight and polysaccharide composition of musts and wines of the application of high-power ultrasound (US) at 20 and 28 kHz on crushed grapes. Two different pomace maceration times (short and mid) were tested for sonicated and control vinifications. A long pomace maceration time was also tested for non-treated wines. In must samples, US significantly increased the content of monosaccharides and polysaccharides rich in arabinose and galactose (PRAG), and the average molecular weight of smaller PRAG, mannoproteins (MP) or mannans. The 28 kHz had a major effect on most wine monosaccharides and grape polysaccharides. The wine obtained from sonicated grapes at 28 kHz and with mid maceration had higher rhamnogalacturonans type II and PRAG content than its control, and closer polysaccharide and monosaccharide content to long maceration control wines. No significant differences were obtained in the MP content between sonicated and control wines.

Tannin oxidation: intra- versus intermolecular reactions.

Grape and apple condensed tannin fractions were autoxidized at high concentrations (5 g/L) in aqueous solutions and analyzed by thiolysis (depolymerization followed by HPLC analysis) and small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS). Structural parameters of native (unoxidized) tannin polymers were derived from SAXS according to the wormlike chain model: the length per monomer is 15 A, the length of the statistical segment 17 A, and the cross section of the macromolecule has a radius within the range 3-4.5 A. The rather short length of the statistical segment is an effect of the different location of interflavanol linkages, which cause a loss of orientational correlation between successive monomers. Oxidation created new bonds that were resistant to thiolysis, and, according to thiolysis, some of these new bonds were intramolecular. However, according to SAXS, oxidation at high tannin concentration caused the weight average degree of polymerization to increase, indicating that intermolecular reactions took place as well, creating larger macromolecules. In the case of the smaller grape seed tannins, these intermolecular reactions took place "end to end" leading to the formation of longer linear macromolecules, at least in the earlier stages of oxidation. In the case of the larger apple tannins, the SAXS patterns were characteristic of larger branched macromolecules. Accordingly, the intermolecular reactions were mainly "end to middle". This is in agreement with the higher probabilities of "end to middle" reactions arising from a higher ratio extension unit/terminal unit in the latter case.

Evaluating Alternatives to Cold Stabilization in Wineries: The Use of Carboxymethyl Cellulose, Potassium Polyaspartate, Electrodialysis and Ion Exchange Resins.

The tartaric stabilization of wines before bottling to avoid the precipitation of tartaric acid salts is an important and common step during wine production. The presence of precipitated salt crystals in bottled wines is detrimental to their quality and can even be a legal issue in some countries. Different methodologies are used in wineries to substitute the classical low-temperature stabilization process, which is an effective but costly process. This study comprises two years of experiments with red wines at an industrial scale. In the first year of the experiment, two subtractive methods (ionic exchange resins and electrodialysis) were tested, whereas two additive methods (potassium polyaspartate and carboxymethyl cellulose, both of them containing gum Arabic) were tested the second year. The tartaric stability of the wines, together with the oenological, chromatic and sensory characteristics, were followed during one year in the bottle. The results indicate that carboxymethyl cellulose and potassium polyaspartate (both combined with gum Arabic) were best at maintaining the sensory and chromatic characteristics during storage, with potassium polyaspartate providing a good tartaric stability to the treated wine and this wine being, in general, preferred in a sensory analysis test.

Changes in Skin Flavanol Composition as a Response to Ozone-Induced Stress during Postharvest Dehydration of Red Wine Grapes with Different Phenolic Profiles.

In this study, the combined effect of partial postharvest dehydration and long-term ozone treatment was evaluated at 10 and 20% weight loss as a strategy to induce compositional changes in grape skin flavanols. Two separate trials were carried out in thermohygrometric-controlled chambers at 20 °C and 70% relative humidity. The first trial was conducted under an ozone-enriched atmosphere at 30 µL/L, whereas the second trial was performed under an air atmosphere as a control. Two red wine grape varieties were studied, Barbera and Nebbiolo (Vitis vinifera L.), for their different phenolic composition. Berry skin flavanol composition was determined by high-performance liquid chromatography after phloroglucinolysis and size-exclusion chromatography. The results showed that dehydration and ozone effects were variety-dependent. In Barbera skins, being characterized by lower proanthocyanidin contents, the two effects were significant and their combination showed interesting advantages related to lower proanthocyanidin loss as well as higher prodelphinidin and lower galloylation percentages. In Nebbiolo, skin flavanol composition was barely affected.