Use of an expert elicitation methodology to compare welfare impacts of two approaches for blood sampling European badgers (Meles meles) in the field.

In the UK and Republic of Ireland, the European badger (Meles meles) is considered the most significant wildlife reservoir of the bacterium Mycobacterium bovis, the cause of bovine tuberculosis (bTB). To expand options for bTB surveillance and disease control, the Animal and Plant Health Agency developed a bespoke physical restraint cage to facilitate collection of a small blood sample from a restrained, conscious badger in the field. A key step, prior to pursuing operational deployment of the novel restraint cage, was an assessment of the relative welfare impacts of the approach. We used an established welfare assessment model to elicit expert opinion during two workshops to compare the impacts of the restraint cage approach with the only current alternative for obtaining blood samples from badgers in the field, which involves administration of a general anaesthetic. Eleven panellists participated in the workshops, comprising experts in the fields of wildlife biology, animal welfare science, badger capture and sampling, and veterinary science. Both approaches were assessed to have negative welfare impacts, although in neither case were overall welfare scores higher than intermediate, never exceeding 5-6 out of a possible 8. Based on our assessments, the restraint cage approach is no worse for welfare compared to using general anaesthesia and possibly has a lower overall negative impact on badger welfare. Our results can be used to integrate consideration of badger welfare alongside other factors, including financial cost and efficiency, when selecting a field method for blood sampling free-living badgers.

TeamMate: a longitudinal study of New Zealand working farm dogs. I. Methods, population characteristics and health on enrolment.

BACKGROUND: Working farm dogs are invaluable on New Zealand sheep and beef farms. To date no study describing farm dog population and health has included information about incidence of illness and injury, or risk factors affecting health and career duration. This paper describes the methodology and initial results from TeamMate, a longitudinal study that was designed to address this gap. We describe the study population, husbandry practices, and prevalence of clinical abnormalities on enrolment. METHODS: Data about the farms, owners, husbandry practices and dogs were collected on farm at approximately 6-month intervals. All dogs over 18 months old and in full work were enrolled. Dogs were given physical examinations by veterinarians. On examination all abnormalities were noted, regardless of clinical significance. RESULTS: Six hundred forty-one working farm dogs and 126 owners were enrolled from the South Island of New Zealand. Forty-nine percent of dogs were Heading dogs (314 of 641) and 48% Huntaways (308 of 641). Median age of dogs was 4 years (range 1.5-14) and median body condition score (BCS) was four on a 9-point scale (interquartile range (IQR) 3-5). Fifty-four percent of dogs were male (345 of 641), and 6% (41 of 641) were neutered. Eighty-one percent of owners (102 of 126) fed dogs commercial biscuits and meat sourced on farm. Forty-four percent of dogs (279 of 641) had bedding in their kennel, 14% (55 of 393) had insulated kennels, 69% (442 of 641) had been vaccinated and 33% (213 of 641) were insured. Clinical abnormalities were found in 74% of dogs (475 of 641). Common abnormalities involved the musculoskeletal system (43%, 273 of 641), skin (including scars and callouses; 42%, 272 of 641), and oral cavity (including worn and broken teeth; 35%, 227 of 641). CONCLUSIONS: Our results expand on those from previous surveys and indicate that musculoskeletal illness and injury, and skin trauma are the most commonly seen clinical abnormalities in working farm dogs. These results will provide a baseline for investigation of incidence and risk factors for illness, injury, retirement and death in New Zealand working farm dogs.

A prospective study of breed differences in the thermal pain sensitivity of dogs.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the thermal nociceptive thresholds (TNTs) of dogs from three working/sport breeds. STUDY DESIGN: Experimental prospective study. ANIMALS: Thirty healthy adult dogs of mixed age, sex and reproductive status, 10 of each of three breeds: Harrier Hound, Greyhound and New Zealand Huntaway. METHODS: On one day of each week for 4 weeks, unrestrained dogs were tested six times. TNTs were measured using a remotely activated device comprising a thermode attached to the thoracic limb, controlled by a microprocessor attached to the animal. Latency to exhibit behaviour indicative of nociception after initiation of heating and the temperature of the thermode at the point of behavioural response were measured. Linear mixed-effects models were fitted to the data, with dog included as a random effect, initial thermode temperature as a covariate and day, week and breed as fixed effects. RESULTS: Initial thermode temperature significantly affected dogs' latency to respond (p < 0.001). Breed had a significant effect on both latency to respond and response temperature. Huntaways took longer to respond than Harriers or Greyhounds. For example, when the initial thermode temperature was 30 °C, Huntaways took 39.0 seconds to respond compared with 35.8 seconds for Harriers and 36.8 seconds for Greyhounds. Huntaways also responded at higher temperatures (mean±standard deviation: Huntaways 49.7±1.3 °C, Harriers 48.4±1.6 °C and Greyhounds 48.7±1.6 °C). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Huntaways appeared to be less sensitive to thermal pain than the other breeds. Such information could be used by researchers and clinicians to better understand the generalizability of data gathered from a specific breed to the wider canine population or to tailor more effective pharmacological approaches to pain management in dogs.

International consensus principles for ethical wildlife control.

Human-wildlife conflicts are commonly addressed by excluding, relocating, or lethally controlling animals with the goal of preserving public health and safety, protecting property, or conserving other valued wildlife. However, declining wildlife populations, a lack of efficacy of control methods in achieving desired outcomes, and changes in how people value animals have triggered widespread acknowledgment of the need for ethical and evidence-based approaches to managing such conflicts. We explored international perspectives on and experiences with human-wildlife conflicts to develop principles for ethical wildlife control. A diverse panel of 20 experts convened at a 2-day workshop and developed the principles through a facilitated engagement process and discussion. They determined that efforts to control wildlife should begin wherever possible by altering the human practices that cause human-wildlife conflict and by developing a culture of coexistence; be justified by evidence that significant harms are being caused to people, property, livelihoods, ecosystems, and/or other animals; have measurable outcome-based objectives that are clear, achievable, monitored, and adaptive; predictably minimize animal welfare harms to the fewest number of animals; be informed by community values as well as scientific, technical, and practical information; be integrated into plans for systematic long-term management; and be based on the specifics of the situation rather than negative labels (pest, overabundant) applied to the target species. We recommend that these principles guide development of international, national, and local standards and control decisions and implementation.

Electroencephalographic responses of anaesthetized pigs (Sus scrofa) to tail docking using clippers or cautery iron performed at 2 or 20 days of age.

OBJECTIVE: To compare electroencephalographic (EEG) responses of pigs to tail docking using clippers or cautery iron, performed at 2 or 20 days of age. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective, randomised controlled experimental study. ANIMALS: A total of 40 Large White x Landrace entire male pigs aged 2 (n=20) or 20 (n=20) days were randomly assigned to undergo tail docking using clippers or cautery iron. METHODS: Anaesthesia was induced and maintained with halothane delivered in oxygen. Following instrumentation, end-tidal halothane concentration was stabilised at 1.0±0.05%, and EEG recording commenced. After a 5 minute baseline period, tail docking was performed and recording continued for additional 10 minutes. EEG data were subjected to Fast Fourier transformation, yielding the summary variables median frequency (F50), 95% spectral edge frequency (F95) and total power (PTOT). Variables recorded during the baseline period were compared with those calculated at consecutive 15 second intervals following tail docking. RESULTS: Following tail docking, F50 decreased briefly but significantly in 2-day-olds, whereas 20-day-olds exhibited a sustained increase in F50 (p<0.05). Immediately after tail docking, F50 was overall lower in 2-day-olds than in 20-day-olds (p<0.05). F95 increased after docking in 20-day-olds docked using clippers (p<0.05) but did not change in 20-day-olds docked using cautery iron or in 2-day-olds docked using either method. Overall, F95 was lower in 2-day-olds than in 20-day-olds from 30 to 60 seconds after docking (p<0.05). PTOT decreased after docking in 20-day-olds (p<0.05) but did not change in 2-day-olds. Overall, PTOT was lower in 2- than in 20-day-olds during baseline and after tail docking (p<0.05). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: These data suggest that tail docking using clippers is more acutely painful than docking using cautery iron and that docking within the first days of birth may be less acutely painful than docking at a later age.

Assessment of a carbon dioxide laser for the measurement of thermal nociceptive thresholds following intramuscular administration of analgesic drugs in pain-free female cats.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the potential of a thermal carbon dioxide (CO2) laser to explore antinociception in pain-free cats. STUDY DESIGN: Experimental, prospective, blinded, randomized study. ANIMALS: Sixty healthy adult female cats with a (mean±standard deviation) weight of 3.3±0.6 kg. METHODS: Cats were systematically allocated to one of six treatments: saline 0.2 mL per cat; morphine 0.5 mg kg(-1); buprenorphine 20 µg kg(-1); medetomidine 2 µg kg(-1); tramadol 2 mg kg(-1), and ketoprofen 2 mg kg(-1). Latency to respond to thermal stimulation was assessed at baseline and at intervals of 15-30, 30-45, 45-60, 60-75, 90-105 and 120-135 minutes. Thermal thresholds were assessed using time to respond behaviourally to stimulation with a 500 mW CO2 laser. Within-treatment differences in response latency were assessed using Friedman's test. Differences amongst treatments were assessed using independent Kruskal-Wallis tests. Where significant effects were identified, pairwise comparisons were conducted to elucidate the direction of the effect. RESULTS: Cats treated with morphine (χ2=12.90, df=6, p=0.045) and tramadol (χ2=20.28, df=6, p=0.002) showed significant increases in latency to respond. However, subsequent pairwise comparisons indicated that differences in latencies at specific time-points were significant (p<0.05) only for tramadol at 60-75 and 90-105 minutes after administration (21.9 and 43.6 seconds, respectively) in comparison with baseline (11.0 seconds). No significant pairwise comparisons were found within the morphine treatment. Injections of saline, ketoprofen, medetomidine or buprenorphine showed no significant effect on latency to respond. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The CO2 laser technique may have utility in the assessment of thermal nociceptive thresholds in pain-free cats after analgesic administration and may provide a simpler alternative to existing systems. Further exploration is required to examine its sensitivity and comparative utility.

Effects of isoflurane, sevoflurane and methoxyflurane on the electroencephalogram of the chicken.

OBJECTIVE: Anaesthetics have differing effects on mammalian electroencephalogram (EEG) but little is known about the effects on avian EEG. This study explored how inhalant anaesthetics affect chicken EEG. STUDY DESIGN: Experimental study. ANIMALS: Twelve female Hyline Brown chickens aged 6-11 weeks. METHODS: Each chicken was anaesthetized with isoflurane, sevoflurane, and methoxyflurane. For each, anaesthesia was adjusted to 1, 1.5 and 2 times Minimum Anaesthetic Concentration (MAC). Total Power (Ptot), Median Frequency (F50), Spectral Edge Frequency (F95) and Burst Suppression Ratio (BSR) were calculated at each volume concentration. BSR data were analyzed using doubly repeated measures anova. Neither isoflurane nor sevoflurane could be included in analysis of F50, F95 and Ptot because of extensive burst suppression; Methoxyflurane data were analyzed using RM anova. RESULTS: There was a significant interaction between anaesthetic and concentration on BSR [F(4,22) = 10.65, p < 0.0001]. For both isoflurane and sevoflurane, BSR increased with concentration. Isoflurane caused less suppression than sevoflurane at 1.5 MAC and at final 1 MAC while methoxyflurane caused virtually no burst suppression. Methoxyflurane concentration had a significant effect on F50 [F(2,20) = 3.83, p = 0.04], F95 [F(2,20) = 4.03, p = 0.03] and Ptot [F(2,20) = 5.22, p = 0.02]. Decreasing methoxyflurane from 2 to 1 MAC increased F50 and F95. Ptot increased when concentration decreased from 1.5 to 1 MAC and tended to be higher at 1 MAC than at 2 MAC. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Isoflurane and sevoflurane suppressed chicken EEG in a dose-dependent manner. Higher concentrations of methoxyflurane caused an increasing degree of synchronization of EEG. Isoflurane and sevoflurane suppressed EEG activity to a greater extent than did methoxyflurane at equivalent MAC multiples. Isoflurane caused less suppression than sevoflurane at intermediate concentrations. These results indicate the similarity between avian and mammalian EEG responses to inhalant anaesthetics and reinforce the difference between MAC and anaesthetic effects on brain activity in birds.

Effects of early human handling on the pain sensitivity of young lambs.

OBJECTIVE: Pain sensitivity of lambs changes over the first weeks of life. However, the effects of early treatments such as human handling on pain sensitivity are unknown for this species. This study investigated the effects of regular early gentle human handling on the pain sensitivity of lambs, indicated by their behavioural responses to tail docking. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective part-blinded experimental study. ANIMALS: Twenty-nine singleton Coopworth lambs (females n=14, males n=15). METHODS: Starting at one day of age, lambs were either handled twice daily for 2 weeks (Handled), were kept in the presence of lambs who were being handled but were not handled themselves (Presence), or were exposed to a human only during routine feeding and care (Control). At 3 weeks of age, all lambs were tail docked using rubber rings. Changes in behaviour due to docking were calculated and change data were analyzed using two-way anova with treatment and test pen as main factors. RESULTS: All lambs showed significant increases in the frequency and duration of behaviours indicative of pain, including 'abnormal' behaviours, and decreases in the frequency and duration of 'normal' behaviours after docking. Handled lambs showed a smaller increase in the time spent lying abnormally after docking than did Control lambs (mean transformed change in proportion of 30 minutes spent±SE: Control 0.55±0.04; Handled 0.38±0.03; Presence 0.48±0.03; C versus H t=3.45, p=0.007). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: These results provide some evidence that handling early in life may reduce subsequent pain sensitivity in lambs. While the behavioural effects of handling on pain behaviour were subtle, the results suggest, at the very least, that early handling does not increase pain sensitivity in lambs and suggests there is still flexibility postnatally in the pain processing system of a precocial species.

Mental Experiences in Wild Animals: Scientifically Validating Measurable Welfare Indicators in Free-Roaming Horses.

The mental experiences of animals are what characterises their welfare status. The Five Domains Model for assessing welfare aligns with the understanding that physical and mental states are linked. Following measurement of indicators within each of the four physical/functional Domains (1. Nutrition; 2. Physical environment; 3. Health; and 4. Behavioural interactions), the anticipated negative or positive affective consequences (mental experiences) are cautiously inferred and assigned to Domain 5. Those inferences derive credibility from validated knowledge of the underlying systems of physiology, neurophysiology, neuroethology and affective neuroscience. Any indicators used for assessing welfare need to be scientifically validated. This requires, firstly, evidence of the links between a measurable/observable indicator and the physical/functional impact (in Domains 1 to 4), and secondly, a demonstrable relationship between the physical/functional impact and the mental experience it is inferred the indicators reflect (in Domain five). This review refers to indicators of physical/functional states in Domains 1 to 4, which have been shown to be measurable in free-roaming wild horses, and then evaluates the scientific evidence linking them to inferred mental experiences in Domain 5. This is the first time that the scientific evidence validating a comprehensive range of welfare indicators has been synthesised in this way. Inserting these indicators into the Five Domains Model enables transparently justifiable assessment and grading of welfare status in free-roaming horses.

Scientific Assessment of the Welfare of Trapped Mammals-Key Considerations for the Use of the Sharp and Saunders Humaneness Assessment Model.

Scientific assessment of the impacts of trapping on mammal welfare is necessary to inform cost-benefit analyses of using traps in wildlife management, improve trap performance and trapping processes and develop international trap standards. The Sharp and Saunders humaneness assessment model was developed specifically for assessing welfare impacts in vertebrate wildlife management and has been used to assess the impacts of trapping various mammals. It is a specific version of the more general Five Domains model for welfare assessment which is based on the understanding that welfare state reflects the sum of the animal's mental experiences. Our experience of applying the Sharp and Saunders model allows us to make key recommendations for those wishing to use it. First, the exact parameters of the trapping scenario to be assessed must be decided. Second, assessments should be based on published data, as well as integrating both scientific and practitioner expertise to provide rigorous and relevant outcomes. Third, conclusions about welfare impacts should be based on the appropriate indicators. As far as is possible, mental experiences should be inferred using animal-based indicators, and some representation should be provided of the scorers' confidence in the data on which assessment is based. Careful consideration of these points will help optimize the value of information produced using the model for wildlife management decision-making.

Evaluating Potential Cetacean Welfare Indicators from Video of Live Stranded Long-Finned Pilot Whales (Globicephala melas edwardii).

Despite the known benefit of considering welfare within wildlife conservation and management, there remains a lack of data to inform such evaluations. To assess animal welfare, relevant information must be captured scientifically and systematically. A key first step is identifying potential indicators of welfare and the practicality of their measurement. We assessed the feasibility of evaluating potential welfare indicators from opportunistically gathered video footage of four stranded odontocete species (n = 53) at 14 stranding events around New Zealand. The first stranded cetacean ethogram was compiled, including 30 different behaviours, 20 of which were observed in all four species. Additionally, thirteen types of human intervention were classified. A subset of 49 live stranded long-finned pilot whales (Globicephala melas edwardii) were assessed to determine indicator prevalence and to quantify behaviours. Four 'welfare status' and six 'welfare alerting' non-behavioural indicators could be consistently evaluated from the footage. Additionally, two composite behavioural indicators were feasible. Three human intervention types (present, watering, and touching) and five animal behaviours (tail flutter, dorsal fin flutter, head lift, tail lift, and head side-to-side) were prevalent (>40% of individuals). Our study highlights the potential for non-invasive, remote assessments via video footage and represents an initial step towards developing a systematic, holistic welfare assessment framework for stranded cetaceans.

Evaluating the Behavioural Responses of Healthy Newborn Calves to a Thoracic Squeeze.

A thoracic squeeze has been observed to cause low-vigour neonates of various farmed mammal species, including calves, to enter a state of reduced responsiveness. The removal of the squeeze causes rapid recovery and the expression of normal, healthy behaviours. However, the responses of healthy calves to a thoracic squeeze have not yet been characterized. The responses of 16 healthy newborn calves to a thoracic squeeze are described, along with the effect of the squeeze's application method on the response. Calves aged between 12 and 36 h were subjected to the squeeze using a rope (n = 8) or an inflation cuff (n = 8). In total, 13 of the 16 calves were induced into a state of reduced responsiveness, though neural reflexes persisted in nearly all of them. The squeeze was discontinued for nearly half of those induced before the end of the 10-min period, either due to spontaneous arousal or physiological instability. Both methods of application were equally effective at inducing reduced responsiveness, though responses to the cuff appeared to be more rapid than those to the rope. These findings support previous research on piglets and foals, and suggest that the behavioural responses to a thoracic squeeze are generalised across neonates of precocial farmed mammals; the findings provide a foundation for further research exploring the mechanisms underlying the response and the benefits that its application may bring for the performance of husbandry procedures.

Identification of potential welfare and survival indicators for stranded cetaceans through international, interdisciplinary expert opinion.

Management of live cetacean strandings generally focuses on refloating animals, yet there is a lack of scientific data to inform decision-making. Valid indicators that are practical to measure are needed to assess welfare status and survival likelihood for stranded cetaceans. The Delphi method was applied to gather international and interdisciplinary expert opinion to provide face validity to potential indicators of stranded cetacean welfare and survival likelihood. Two online questionnaires were conducted. In the first questionnaire these experts identified potential indicators of stranded cetacean welfare and survival likelihood. These indicators were subsequently scored by the same experts in questionnaire two, based on their value for assessing welfare/survival likelihood and being practical to measure. Indicators considered valuable and practical for assessing welfare and survival likelihood at strandings included animal-based indices of body and skin condition, signs of physical trauma, respiration rate and various behaviours. Resource-/management-based indicators related mainly to human intervention and should be correlated with animal-based indices to provide relevant evaluations. Importantly, inextricable links between welfare and survival for stranded cetaceans are emphasized, with 90% of indicators being similar for both. Investigations into these indicators should be conducted to develop a practical, science-based assessment framework to inform decision-making during stranding events.

Two Domains to Five: Advancing Veterinary Duty of Care to Fulfil Public Expectations of Animal Welfare Expertise.

Veterinarians are animal health experts. More recently, they have been conferred a leading role as experts in animal welfare. This expectation of veterinarians as welfare experts appears to stem from their training in veterinary medicine as well as professional contributions to welfare-relevant policy and law. Veterinarians are ideally situated to act as animal welfare experts by virtue of their core work with animals and potential influence over owners, their roles in policy development, compliance, and monitoring, and as educators of future veterinarians. However, since its inception as a discipline over 70 years ago, animal welfare science has moved beyond a two-dimensional focus on nutrition and health (biological functioning) towards an understanding that the mental experiences of animals are the focus of welfare consideration. The Five Domains Model is a structured and systematic framework for more holistically considering conditions that contribute to the animal's internal state and its perception of its external situation, and the resultant mental experiences. The Model can be used to better align veterinary animal welfare expertise with contemporary understanding of animal welfare science and improve welfare literacy within the veterinary profession. Improved understanding of animal welfare science is likely to lead to increased confidence, competence, and empowerment to act as experts in their daily lives.

Prevalence of Potential Indicators of Welfare Status in Young Calves at Meat Processing Premises in New Zealand.

In New Zealand, over two million dairy calves between four and seven days of age are sent to meat processing premises every year. There is a need to develop protocols for holistically assessing the welfare of calves sent to slaughter in the first week of life. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of potential animal-based indicators of the welfare state in bobby calves in lairage. The study observed calves in lairage between June and October 2016. Data collection involved assessing groups of calves in pens followed by non-invasive measurements on up to five calves within each pen. We made 23 visits to 12 meat processing premises with group-level observations made on 5910 calves in 102 pens, followed by a non-invasive examination of 504 calves. During the group level observations, none of the calves had their heads tilted or were panting, and coughing and play behaviour were observed in only 1% of pens. In contrast, at least one calf had faecal soiling in all the observed pens, with the percentage of calves affected in each pen ranging from 1% to 48%. In the individual observations, more than 60% of calves had signs of some degree of dehydration, and nearly 40% had some faecal soiling present. In addition, 24% of calves had a respiratory rate over 36 breaths per minute, considered higher than normal. The change in prevalence of some indicators-as time spent in lairage increased or as the calving season progressed-is worth further exploration. Identification of prevalent animal-based indicators facilitates better understanding of the welfare status of young calves in lairage, and these should be incorporated into more holistic calf welfare assessment schemes.

Conceptualizing Indigenous Human-Animal Relationships in Aotearoa New Zealand: An Ethical Perspective.

This article considers the complexity and diversity of ethical concepts and beliefs held by Maori, the indigenous people of Aotearoa New Zealand (hereafter New Zealand), relating to animals. A combination of interviews and focus group discussions were conducted with individuals who identify as Maori and were working with wildlife, primarily in an eco-tourism and conservation context. Two main themes emerged from the data: ethical concepts relating to the environment, and concepts relating to the spiritual relationships between people, animals and the environment. These findings highlight that the connections between humans and animals through a Maori lens are nuanced in ways not typically accounted for in Western philosophy. This is of particular importance because of the extent to which standard Western thought is embodied in law and policy related to human treatment of animals and the environment. In New Zealand, relationships and partnerships are informed by Te Tiriti o Waitangi, one of New Zealand's founding documents. Where these partnerships include activities and environments involving human-animal interaction, policy and legislation should account for Maori knowledge, and diverse of thought among different hapu (tribal groups). We conclude by exploring ways of including Maori ethical concepts around animals in general, and wild animals in particular, in law and policy, providing a case study relevant to other bicultural or multicultural societies.

Deathly Silent: Exploring the Global Lack of Data Relating to Stranded Cetacean Euthanasia.

The compromised state of stranded cetaceans means that euthanasia is often required. However, current knowledge and implementation of euthanasia methods remain highly variable, with limited data on the practicalities and welfare impacts of procedures. This study evaluated the available published data on cetacean euthanasia, highlighting knowledge gaps and providing direction to improve stranded cetacean welfare. A total of 2147 peer-reviewed articles describing marine mammal euthanasia were examined. Of these 3.1% provided details on the method used, with 91% employing chemical methods. Two countries, the United Kingdom (UK) and New Zealand (NZ), provided euthanasia reports to the International Whaling Commission (IWC) between 2007 and 2020. Methods employed were reported for 78.3% and 100% of individual cetaceans euthanised in the UK and NZ, respectively. In the UK, chemical euthanasia was most common (52%), whilst in NZ only ballistics methods were used. Few data were available about time to death/insensibility (TTD); 0.5% of peer-reviewed articles provided TTD, whilst TTD was reported for 35% of individuals in the UK and for 98% in NZ. However, IWC reports lacked detail on how death/insensibility were assessed, with multiple individuals "presumed instantly" killed. Overall, the findings highlight the lack of available information on cetacean euthanasia, and suggest increased data collection and the application of appropriate methods to improve welfare.

Validation of a combined approach-avoidance and conditioned stimulus aversion paradigm for evaluating aversion in chickens.

Understanding animals' aversion is important to improving their welfare. Aversion is often assessed using an approach-avoidance (AA) test in which animals have to forfeit a reward if they want to avoid an event or environment presented in the same place. However, sometimes the event/environment suspected to be aversive may physically impair the animal's ability to withdraw from that place (i.e. its ability to express aversion), leading to incorrect interpretations. Combining AA with a Conditioned-Stimulus that predicts the event/environment may overcome this problem by allowing animals to demonstrate aversion without exposure to the stimulus. We aimed to validate this paradigm for testing aversion in chickens. Seven Hyline-Brown chickens were trained to obtain a food reward from a coloured bowl located in the test chamber (TC) of a two-chambered box; the reward was presented in a green bowl with an inactivated air canister or a red bowl with the canister activated to deliver an air puff. Two 5-minute tests were conducted, one with each bowl colour and both with the canister inactivated. All chickens entered TC with the green bowl. With the red bowl, two chickens entered on their first attempt, one fully entered after a partial entry (3/7 fully entered), two made only partial entries and two made no attempts to enter. Chickens spent less time in the TC with the red bowl (median 31s, IQR 7-252) compared to the green bowl (293s, IQR 290-294; p = 0.008). The higher ratio of partial to full entries, failure to enter the TC and less time spent in TC reflected chickens' aversion to the air puff, signalled by the red bowl. The paradigm allowed chickens to demonstrate aversion without exposure to the aversive stimulus during testing.

Characterisation of the Behavioural Effects of a Thoracic Squeeze in Healthy Newborn Piglets.

A thoracic squeeze has been observed to cause both healthy and low vigour neonatal foals to enter a 'less-responsive state', characterised by loss of posture, eye closure and cessation of movement, from which they rapidly recover to express normal healthy behaviours when the squeeze is released. To date, there have been no systematic studies characterising the responses of healthy neonates of other mammalian species to a thoracic squeeze. We describe the responses of healthy newborn piglets (n = 17) to a standardised application of the thoracic squeeze and evaluate the effect of the method of squeeze application on the response. Neonatal piglets were squeezed around the chest with either a soft fabric rope as has been used in foals (n = 8) or a novel purpose-made inflation cuff (n = 9). Both methods were effective at inducing a less-responsive behavioural state in all piglets, with neural reflexes reduced or absent in over half of them. The inflation cuff appeared to induce the less-responsive state faster than the rope, and more piglets squeezed with the cuff remained in this state for the full 10-min squeeze. These findings suggest that the behavioural response of foals to thoracic squeezing can be generalised to neonates of other precocial mammalian species. This initial study provides a foundation for further research using the inflation cuff to explore mechanisms underlying the thoracic squeeze and ways in which it may be applied whilst performing husbandry procedures.

I Am a Compassionate Conservation Welfare Scientist: Considering the Theoretical and Practical Differences Between Compassionate Conservation and Conservation Welfare.

Compassionate Conservation and Conservation Welfare are two disciplines whose practitioners advocate consideration of individual wild animals within conservation practice and policy. However, they are not, as is sometimes suggested, the same. Compassionate Conservation and Conservation Welfare are based on different underpinning ethics, which sometimes leads to conflicting views about the kinds of conservation activities and decisions that are acceptable. Key differences between the disciplines appear to relate to their views about which wild animals can experience harms, the kinds of harms they can experience and how we can know about and confidently evidence those harms. Conservation Welfare scientists seek to engage with conservation scientists with the aim of facilitating ongoing incremental improvements in all aspects of conservation, i.e., minimizing harms to animals. In contrast, it is currently unclear how the tenets of Compassionate Conservation can be used to guide decision-making in complex or novel situations. Thus, Conservation Welfare may offer modern conservationists a more palatable approach to integrating evidence-based consideration of individual sentient animals into conservation practice and policy.