Association of state Medicaid expansion policies with pediatric liver transplant outcomes.

Children from minoritized/socioeconomically deprived backgrounds suffer disproportionately high rates of uninsurance and graft failure/death after liver transplant. Medicaid expansion was developed to expand access to public insurance. Our objective was to characterize the impact of Medicaid expansion policies on long-term graft/patient survival after pediatric liver transplantation. All pediatric patients (<19 years) who received a liver transplant between January 1, 2005, and December 31, 2020 in the US were identified in the Scientific Registry of Transplant Recipients (N = 8489). Medicaid expansion was modeled as a time-varying exposure based on transplant and expansion dates. We used Cox proportional hazards models to evaluate the impact of Medicaid expansion on a composite outcome of graft failure/death over 10 years. As a sensitivity analysis, we conducted an intention-to-treat analysis from time of waitlisting to death (N = 1 1901). In multivariable analysis, Medicaid expansion was associated with a 30% decreased hazard of graft failure/death (hazard ratio, 0.70; 95% confidence interval, 0.62, 0.79; P < .001) after adjusting for Black race, public insurance, neighborhood deprivation, and living in a primary care shortage area. In intention-to-treat analyses, Medicaid expansion was associated with a 72% decreased hazard of patient death (hazard ratio, 0.28; 95% confidence interval, 0.23-0.35; P < .001). Policies that enable broader health insurance access may help improve outcomes and reduce disparities for children undergoing liver transplantation.

Racial Inequities in Palliative Referral for Children with High-Intensity Neurologic Impairment.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate whether racial and socioeconomic inequities in pediatric palliative care utilization extend to children with high-intensity neurologic impairment (HI-NI), which is a chronic neurological diagnosis resulting in substantial functional morbidity and mortality. STUDY DESIGN: We conducted a retrospective study of patients with HI-NI who received primary care services at a tertiary care center from 2014 through 2019. HI-NI diagnoses that warranted a palliative care referral were identified by consensus of a multidisciplinary team. The outcome was referral to palliative care. The primary exposure was race, categorized as Black or non-Black to represent the impact of anti-Black racism. Additional exposures included ethnicity (Hispanic/non-Hispanic) and insurance status (Medicaid/non-Medicaid). Descriptive statistics, bivariate analyses, and multivariable logistic regression models were performed to assess associations between exposures and palliative care referral. RESULTS: A total of 801 patients with HI-NI were included; 7.5% received a palliative referral. There were no differences in gestational age, sex, or ethnicity between patients who received a referral and those who did not. In multivariable analysis, adjusting for ethnicity, sex, gestational age, and presence of complex chronic conditions, Black children (aOR 0.47, 95% CI 0.26, 0.84) and children with Medicaid insurance (aOR 0.40, 95% CI 0.23, 0.70) each had significantly lower odds of palliative referral compared with their non-Black and non-Medicaid-insured peers, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: We identified inequities in pediatric palliative care referral among children with HI-NI by race and insurance status. Future work is needed to develop interventions, with families, aimed at promoting more equitable, antiracist systems of palliative care.

Food Insecurity and Pediatric Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease Severity.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the association between food insecurity and pediatric nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). METHODS: Cross-sectional study of patients < 21 years of age with histologically confirmed NAFLD. The Household Food Security Survey Module was administered to determine food insecurity status. Skin lipidomics were performed to explore pathophysiologic mechanisms. RESULTS: Seventy-three patients with histologically confirmed NAFLD completed the Household Food Security Survey Module. Of these, the majority were male (81%) and non-Hispanic (53%), with a mean age at biopsy of 13 ± 3 years. Food insecurity was seen in 42% (n = 31). Comparison of features between food insecure and food secure subgroups revealed no differences in sex, ethnicity, BMI z-score, aminotransferases, or histologic severity. However, children experiencing food insecurity presented on average 2 years before their food secure counterparts (12.3 ± 3.0 vs 14.4 ± 3.6 years, P = .015). A subset of 31 patients provided skin samples. Skin lipidomics revealed that food insecurity was associated with down-regulated features from the lipoamino acid class of lipids, previously linked to inflammation and adipocyte differentiation. CONCLUSIONS: Food insecurity is highly prevalent in children with NAFLD and is associated with earlier presentation. Lipidomic analyses suggest a possible pathophysiologic link that warrants further exploration.

Geographic variation in disease burden among patients with severe persistent asthma in the United States.

BACKGROUND: In the United States, a few studies have evaluated geographic variation of severe asthma at the subnational level. OBJECTIVE: To assess state-level geographic variation in the prevalence and characteristics of severe persistent asthma in the United States. METHODS: Patients aged above or equal to 12 years with severe persistent asthma were identified using nationally representative data from IQVIA open-source Medical/Pharmacy Claims and PharMetrics Plus databases (January 2019-December 2020). The index date was defined as the patient's earliest qualifying date for a severe asthma diagnosis. Baseline characteristics were measured during the 12-month pre-index period. Outcomes including exacerbation occurrence, asthma control, and medication use were measured during the 12-month post-index period and compared across states using census-level projections. RESULTS: A total of 2,092,799 patients with asthma were identified; 496,750 (23.7%) met criteria for severe persistent asthma and all inclusion criteria. Mean age was 50.5 years; 68.4% were females. The prevalence of severe persistent asthma varied across states, ranging from 19.6% (New Mexico) to 31.9% (Alaska). Among patients with severe persistent asthma, 40.9% had more than or equal to 1 exacerbation, ranging from 34.2% (Vermont) to 45.6% (Louisiana); 21.1% had uncontrolled disease, ranging from 16.5% (Vermont) to 24.0% (Arizona). Among patients with exacerbations, 13.7% had exacerbation-related emergency department visits or hospitalizations, ranging from 7.0% (North Carolina) to 17.7% (Nevada). Among patients with severe uncontrolled asthma, 15.6% used biologics post-index, ranging from 2.2% (Hawaii) to 27.9% (Mississippi). CONCLUSION: There is significant variability in severe persistent asthma prevalence and disease burden across US states. Reasons for geographic variation may include differences in socioeconomic/environmental factors or asthma management.

Potential causes of delays in paediatric perforated appendicitis: A prospective interview study.

AIM: Delays in care may be a driver of inequities in perforated appendicitis rates. The goal of this study was to explore potential causes of delay in care for children with perforated appendicitis. METHODS: We conducted an interview study of caregivers of children admitted with perforated appendicitis to a children's hospital between December 2022 and March 2023. Semi-structured interviews based on an iteratively revised interview guide were conducted in-person during the child's admission. All interviews were transcribed, coded and underwent a process of thematic analysis. RESULTS: We reached thematic saturation after 12 interviews. The median age for children was 13.5 years, 50% were male, 83% of caregivers self-identified as White, and one interview required an interpreter. Through thematic analysis, four major themes for potential causes of delay emerged. The first theme of symptom recognition includes delays related to recognising the symptoms, their severity and the need for medical evaluation. The second theme - accessing care - describes delays that occur after a decision was made to seek care until the child was evaluated. The third theme includes delays that occur in making the diagnosis after evaluation. The last theme captures potential delays in definitive treatment after a diagnosis of appendicitis is made. CONCLUSION: We identify four major themes from the patient and family perspective, each with multiple sub-themes, for potential delays in definitive care for children with perforated appendicitis. Additional research is needed to further characterise these potential delays and quantify their role in contributing to inequities in perforation rates.

Socioeconomic Influences on Outcomes Following Congenital Heart Disease Surgery.

Associations between social determinants of health (SDOH) and adverse outcomes for children with congenital heart disease (CHD) are starting to be recognized; however, such links remain understudied. We examined the relationship between community-level material deprivation on mortality, readmission, and length of stay (LOS) for children undergoing surgery for CHD. We performed a retrospective cohort study of patients who underwent cardiac surgery at our institution from 2015 to 2018. A community-level deprivation index (DI), a marker of community material deprivation, was generated to contextualize the lived experience of children with CHD. Generalized mixed-effects models were used to assess links between the DI and outcomes of mortality, readmission, and LOS following cardiac surgery. The DI and components were scaled to provide mean differences for a one standard deviation (SD) increase in deprivation. We identified 1,187 unique patients with surgical admissions. The median LOS was 11 days, with an overall mortality rate of 4.6% and readmission rate of 7.6%. The DI ranged from 0.08 to 0.85 with a mean of 0.37 (SD 0.12). The DI was associated with increased LOS for patients with more complex heart disease (STAT 3, 4, and 5), which persisted after adjusting for factors that could prolong LOS (all p < 0.05). The DI approached but did not meet a significant association with mortality (p = 0.0528); it was not associated with readmission (p = 0.36). Community-level deprivation is associated with increased LOS for patients undergoing cardiac surgery. Future work to identify the specific health-related social needs contributing to LOS and identify targets for intervention is needed.

Racial/ethnic disparities in wait-list outcomes are only partly explained by socioeconomic deprivation among children awaiting liver transplantation.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Racial/ethnic minority children have worse liver transplant (LT) outcomes. We evaluated whether neighborhood socioeconomic deprivation affected associations between race/ethnicity and wait-list mortality. APPROACH AND RESULTS: We included children (age <18) listed 2005-2015 in the Scientific Registry of Transplant Recipients. We categorized patients as non-Hispanic White, Black, Hispanic, and other. We matched patient ZIP codes to a neighborhood socioeconomic deprivation index (range, 0-1; higher values indicate worse deprivation). Primary outcomes were wait-list mortality, defined as death/delisting for too sick, and receipt of living donor liver transplant (LDLT). Competing risk analyses modeled the association between race/ethnicity and wait-list mortality, with deceased donor liver transplant (DDLT) and LDLT as competing risks, and race/ethnicity and LDLT, with wait-list mortality and DDLT as competing risks. Of 7716 children, 17% and 24% identified as Black and Hispanic, respectively. Compared to White children, Black and Hispanic children had increased unadjusted hazard of wait-list mortality (subhazard ratio [sHR], 1.44; 95% CI, 1.18, 1.75 and sHR, 1.48; 95% CI, 1.25, 1.76, respectively). After adjusting for neighborhood deprivation, insurance, and listing laboratory Model for End-Stage Liver Disease/Pediatric End-Stage Liver Disease, Black and Hispanic children did not have increased hazard of wait-list mortality (sHR, 1.12; 95% CI, 0.91, 1.39 and sHR, 1.21; 95% CI, 1.00, 1.47, respectively). Similarly, Black and Hispanic children had a decreased likelihood of LDLT (sHR, 0.58; 95% CI, 0.45, 0.75 and sHR, 0.61; 95% CI, 0.49, 0.75, respectively). Adjustment attenuated the effect of Black and Hispanic race/ethnicity on likelihood of LDLT (sHR, 0.79; 95% CI, 0.60, 1.02 and sHR, 0.89; 95% CI, 0.70, 1.11, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: Household and neighborhood socioeconomic factors and disease severity at wait-list entry help explain racial/ethnic disparities for children awaiting transplant. A nuanced understanding of how social adversity contributes to wait-list outcomes may inform strategies to improve outcomes.

Identifying asthma-related risks during hospitalization using the child asthma risk assessment tool.

Objective: The Child Asthma Risk Assessment Tool (CARAT) identifies risk factors for asthma morbidity. We hypothesized that CARAT-identified risk factors (using a CARAT adapted for inpatient use) would be associated with future healthcare utilization and would identify areas for intervention.Methods: We reviewed CARAT data collected during pediatric asthma admissions from 2010-2015, assessing for risk factors in environmental, medical, and social domains and providing prompts for inpatient (specialist consultation or social services engagement) and post-discharge interventions (home care visit or home environmental assessment). Confirmatory factor analysis identified groups of CARAT-identified risk factors with similar effects on healthcare utilization (latent factors). Structural equation models then evaluated relationships between latent factors and future utilization.Results: There were 2731 unique patients admitted for asthma exacerbations; 1015 (37%) had complete CARAT assessments and were included in analyses. Those with incomplete CARAT assessments were more often younger and privately-insured. CARAT-identified risk factors across domains were common in children hospitalized for exacerbations. Risks in the environmental domain were most common. Inpatient asthma consults by pulmonologists or allergists and home care referrals were the most frequent interventions indicated (62%, 628/1015, and 50%, 510/1015, respectively). Two latent factors were positively associated with healthcare utilization in the year after index stay - social stressors and known/suspected allergies (both p < 0.05). Stratified analyses analyzing data just from those children with prior healthcare utilization also indicated known/suspected allergies to be positively associated with future utilization.Conclusions: Inpatient interventions to address social stressors and allergic profiles may be warranted to reduce subsequent asthma morbidity.

Understanding racial disparities in childhood asthma using individual- and neighborhood-level risk factors.

BACKGROUND: Racial disparities in childhood asthma outcomes result from a complex interplay of individual- and neighborhood-level factors. OBJECTIVES: We sought to examine racial disparities in asthma-related emergency department (ED) visits between African American (AA) and European American (EA) children. METHODS: This is a retrospective study of patients younger than 18 years who visited the ED at Cincinnati Children's for asthma from 2009 to 2018. The outcome was number of ED visits during a year. We assessed 11 social, economic, and environmental variables. Mediation and mixed-effects analyses were used to assess relationships between race, mediators, and number of ED visits. RESULTS: A total of 31,114 children (46.1% AA, 53.9% EA) had 186,779 asthma-related ED visits. AA children had more visits per year than EA children (2.23 vs 2.15; P < .001). Medicaid insurance was associated with a 7% increase in rate of ED visits compared with commercial insurance (1.07; 95% CI, 1.03-1.1). Neighborhood socioeconomic deprivation was associated with an increased rate of ED visits in AA but not in EA children. Area-level particulate matter with diameter less than 2.5 µm, pollen, and outdoor mold were associated with an increased rate of ED visits for both AA and EA children (all P < .001). Associations between race and number of ED visits were mediated by insurance, area-level deprivation, particulate matter with diameter less than 2.5 µm, and outdoor mold (all P < .001), altogether accounting for 55% of the effect of race on ED visits. Race was not associated with number of ED visits (P = .796) after accounting for mediators. CONCLUSIONS: Racial disparities in asthma-related ED visits are mediated by social, economic, and environmental factors, which may be amenable to interventions aimed at improving outcomes and eliminating inequities.

Increasing Coronavirus Disease 2019 Vaccine Uptake in Pediatric Primary Care by Offering Vaccine to Household Members.

Pediatric primary care is a trusted source for treatment and information. In the 6 months after coronavirus disease 2019 vaccines became available for adolescents, we administered 2286 doses (1270 to patients; 1016 to household members) to 1376 individuals (64.1% Black; 10.1% Latinx), providing opportunities to address family concerns in a familiar location.

Association of Primary Care Shortage Areas with Adverse Outcomes after Pediatric Liver Transplant.

OBJECTIVE: To characterize associations between living in primary care shortage areas and graft failure/death for children after liver transplantation. STUDY DESIGN: This was an observational study of all pediatric patients (aged <19 years) who received a liver transplant between January 1, 2005, and December 31, 2015 in the US, with follow-up through January 2019 (N = 5964). One hundred ninety-five patients whose home ZIP code could not be matched to primary care shortage area status were excluded. The primary outcome was a composite endpoint of graft failure or death. We used Cox proportional hazards to model the associations between health professional shortage area (HPSA) and graft failure/death. RESULTS: Children living in HPSAs had lower estimated graft survival rates at 10 years compared with those not in HPSAs (76% vs 80%; P < .001). In univariable analysis, residence in an HPSA was associated with a 22% higher hazard of graft failure/death than non-residence in an HPSA (hazard ratio [HR], 1.22; 95% CI, 1.09-1.36; P < .001). Black children from HPSAs had a 67% higher hazard of graft failure/death compared with those not in HPSAs (HR, 1.67; 95% CI, 1.29 to 2.16; P = .006); the effect of HPSA status was less pronounced for White children (HR, 1.11; 95% CI, 0.98-1.27; P = .10). CONCLUSIONS: Children living in primary care shortage areas are at increased risk of graft failure and death after liver transplant, and this risk is particularly salient for Black children. Future work to understand how living in these regions contributes to adverse outcomes may enable teams to mitigate this risk for all children with chronic illness.

Chronic pediatric diseases and risk for reading difficulties: a narrative review with recommendations.

Literacy is a major social determinant of health, rooted in skills that develop during early childhood. Children arriving at kindergarten unprepared to learn to read are more likely to have low reading proficiency thereafter. General and health literacy are highly correlated, affecting understanding of health conditions, treatment adherence, and transition to self-care and adult healthcare services. The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommends literacy and school readiness promotion during well-visits and neurodevelopmental surveillance is emphasized across primary and subspecialty care. While genetic and environmental risk factors for reading difficulties are well-established, risks related to complex and chronic medical conditions are less appreciated and under-researched. This review applies an eco-bio-developmental framework to explore literacy across five complex chronic conditions affecting millions of children worldwide: asthma, cancer, congenital heart disease, epilepsy, and sickle cell disease. In each, integration of an efficient reading brain network may be impacted by direct factors, such as ischemia, anesthesia, and/or medications, and also indirect factors, such as altered parent-child routines, hospital stays, and missed school. By integrating literacy into care management plans for affected children, pediatric primary care and specialty providers are poised to identify risks early, target guidance and interventions, and improve academic and health outcomes. IMPACT: While genetic and environmental risk factors for reading difficulties are well-established, risks related to complex and/or chronic medical conditions such as asthma, cancer, congenital heart disease, epilepsy, and sickle cell disease are substantial, less appreciated, and under-researched. General and health literacy are highly correlated, with implications for the understanding one's health condition, treatment adherence, and transitioning to self-care, which is especially important for children with complex and/or chronic illness. Pediatric primary care and specialty providers are poised to integrate reading and literacy into care management plans for children with complex and/or chronic illness, including early screening, guidance, support, and interventions.

Socioeconomic Impact on Outcomes During the First Year of Life of Patients with Single Ventricle Heart Disease: An Analysis of the National Pediatric Cardiology Quality Improvement Collaborative Registry.

Socioeconomic status (SES) affects a range of health outcomes but has not been extensively explored in the single ventricle population. We investigate the impact of community-level deprivation on morbidity and mortality for infants with single ventricle heart disease in the first year of life. Retrospective cohort analysis of infants enrolled in the National Pediatric Cardiology Improvement Collaborative who underwent staged single ventricle palliation examining mortality and length of stay (LOS) using a community-level deprivation index (DI). 974 patients met inclusion criteria. Overall mortality was 20.5%, with 15.7% of deaths occurring between the first and second palliations. After adjusting for clinical risk factors, the DI was associated with death (log relative hazard [Formula: see text] = 8.92, p = 0.030) and death or transplant (log relative hazard [Formula: see text] = 8.62, p = 0.035) in a non-linear fashion, impacting those near the mean DI. Deprivation was associated with LOS following the first surgical palliation (S1P) (p = 0.031) and overall hospitalization during the first year of life (p = 0.018). For every 0.1 increase in the DI, LOS following S1P increased by 3.35 days (95% confidence interval 0.31-6.38) and total hospitalized days by 5.08 days (95% CI 0.88-9.27). Community deprivation is associated with mortality and LOS for patients with single ventricle congenital heart disease. While patients near the mean DI had a higher hazard of one year mortality compared to those at the extremes of the DI, LOS and DI were linearly associated, demonstrating the complex nature of SES factors.

Inequitable access: factors associated with incomplete referrals to paediatric cardiology.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the variables associated with incomplete and unscheduled cardiology clinic visits among referred children with a focus on equity gaps. STUDY DESIGN: We conducted a retrospective chart review for patients less than 18 years of age who were referred to cardiology clinics at a single quaternary referral centre from 2017 to 2019. We collected patient demographic data including race, an index of neighbourhood socio-economic deprivation linked to a patient's geocoded address, referral information, and cardiology clinic information. The primary outcome was an incomplete clinic visit. The secondary outcome was an unscheduled appointment. Independent associations were identified using multivariable logistic regression. RESULTS: There were 10,610 new referrals; 6954 (66%) completed new cardiology clinic visits. Black race (OR 1.41; 95% CI 1.22-1.63), public insurance (OR 1.29; 95% CI 1.14-1.46), and a higher deprivation index (OR 1.32; 95% CI 1.08-1.61) were associated with higher odds of incomplete visit compared to the respective reference groups of White race, private insurance, and a lower deprivation index. The findings for unscheduled visit were similar. A shorter time elapsed from the initial referral to when the appointment was made was associated with lower odds of incomplete visit (OR 0.62; 95% CI 0.52-0.74). CONCLUSION: Race, insurance type, neighbourhood deprivation, and time from referral date to appointment made were each associated with incomplete referrals to paediatric cardiology. Interventions directed to understand such associations and respond accordingly could help to equitably improve referral completion.

Genetic ancestry differences in pediatric asthma readmission are mediated by socioenvironmental factors.

BACKGROUND: Social and financial hardships, combined with disease managment and environmental factors explain approximately 80% of the observed disparity in asthma-related readmissions between Black and White children. OBJECTIVE: We sought to determine whether asthma-related readmissions differed by degree of African ancestry and the extent to which such an association would also be explained by socioenvironmental risk factors. METHODS: This study used data from a prospective cohort study of 695 Black and White children aged 1 to 16 years with an asthma-related admission. The primary outcome was a similar readmission within 12 months. Each subject's African ancestry was determined by single nucleotide polymorphisms on a continuous scale ranging from 0 to 1 (0 = no African ancestry; 1 = 100% African ancestry). We also assessed 37 social, environmental, and clinical variables that we clustered into 6 domains (for example, hardship, disease management). Survival and mediation analyses were conducted. RESULTS: A total of 134 children (19.3%) were readmitted within 12 months. Higher African ancestry was associated with asthma readmission (odds ratio 1.11, 95% confidence interval 1.05-1.18 for every 10% increase in African ancestry) with adjustment for age and gender. The association between African ancestry and readmission was mediated by hardship (sß = 3.42, P < .001) and disease management (sß = 0.046, P = .001), accounting for >50% of African ancestry's effect on readmission. African ancestry was no longer significantly associated with readmission (sß = 0.035, P = .388) after accounting for these mediators. CONCLUSIONS: African ancestry was strongly associated with readmission, and the association was mediated by family hardship and disease management. These results are consistent with the notion that asthma-related racial disparities are driven by factors like structural racism and social adversity.

Neighborhood socioeconomic deprivation, racial segregation, and organ donation across 5 states.

One in 10 people die awaiting transplantation from donor shortage. Only half of Americans register as organ donors. In this cross-sectional study, we evaluated population-level associations of neighborhood socioeconomic deprivation and racial segregation on organ donor registration rates. We analyzed state identification card demographic and organ donor registration data from 5 states to estimate the association between a neighborhood socioeconomic deprivation index (range [0, 1]; higher values indicate more deprivation) and a racial index of concentration at the extreme (ICE) (range [-1, 1]; lower values indicate predominantly black neighborhoods, higher values indicate predominantly white neighborhoods) on organ donor registration rates within a specified geography (census tract or ZIP code tabulation area [ZCTA]). Among 26 720 738 registrants, 32% of the sample were registered organ donors. At the census tract level, with each 0.1 decrease in the deprivation index, the organ donor registration rate increased by 6.8% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 6.6%, 7.0%). With each 0.1 increase in the racial ICE, the rate increased by 1.5% (95% CI: 1.5%, 1.6%). These associations held true at the ZCTA level. Areas with less socioeconomic deprivation and a higher concentration of white residents have higher organ donor registration rates. Public health initiatives should consider neighborhood context and novel data sources in designing optimal intervention strategies.

Center variation in long-term outcomes for socioeconomically deprived children.

Neighborhood socioeconomic deprivation is associated with adverse outcomes after pediatric liver transplant. We sought to determine if this relationship varies by transplant center. Using SRTR, we included patients <18 years transplanted 2008-2013 (N = 2804). We matched patient ZIP codes to a deprivation index (range [0,1]; higher values indicate increased socioeconomic deprivation). A center-level patient-mix deprivation index was defined by the distribution of patient-level deprivation. Centers (n = 66) were classified as high or low deprivation if their patient-mix deprivation index was above or below the median across centers. Center quality was classified as low or high graft failure if graft survival rates were better or worse than the overall 10-year graft survival rate. Primary outcome was patient-level graft survival. We used random-effect Cox models to evaluate center-level covariates on graft failure. We modeled center quality using stratified Cox models. In multivariate analysis, each 0.1 increase in the patient-mix deprivation index was associated with increased hazard of graft failure (HR 1.32; 95%CI: 1.05, 1.66). When stratified by center quality, patient-mix deprivation was no longer significant (HR 1.07, 95%CI: 0.89, 1.28). Some transplant centers care for predominantly high deprivation children and maintain excellent outcomes. Revealing and replicating these centers' practice patterns should enable more equitable outcomes.

Voter Participation is Associated with Child Health Outcomes at the Population Level.

Civic engagement, including voting, has been linked to health outcomes for adults. Here, we found that census tract-level voter participation rates are significantly associated with pediatric inpatient bed-day rates even after adjustment for socioeconomic deprivation. Such links suggest that promotion of voting participation could be warranted in healthcare settings.

The social, economic, political, and genetic value of race and ethnicity in 2020.

Disparities across racial and ethnic groups are present for a range of health outcomes. In this opinion piece, we consider the origin of racial and ethnic groupings, a history that highlights the sociopolitical nature of these terms. Indeed, the terms race and ethnicity exist purely as social constructs and must not be used interchangeably with genetic ancestry. There is no scientific evidence that the groups we traditionally call "races/ethnicities" have distinct, unifying biological or genetic basis. Such a focus runs the risk of compounding equity gaps and perpetuating erroneous conclusions. That said, we suggest that the terms race and ethnicity continue to have purpose as lenses through which to quantify and then close racial and ethnic disparities. Understanding the root cause of such health disparities-namely, longstanding racism and ethnocentrism-could promote interventions and policies poised to equitably improve population health.

Correction to: The social, economic, political, and genetic value of race and ethnicity in 2020.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via the original article.